This week you will write a proposal that will help you to prepare the Recommendation Report draft that is due in Week Four, and then the final version of the Recommendation Report that is due in Week Five. Your Proposal this week requires you to identify your Final Project – Recommendation Report topic (see the list of topics below) and complete an Audience Analysis.  Guiding questions and suggestions about audience are located on pages 87-93 of the textbook. Your Audience Analysis should be one page in length and your Proposal should be three pages in length, excluding the title page and a references page.

The following are possible topics for your Final Project: THIS WILL BE YOUR TOPIC FOR THE FINAL PROJECT:

• Environmental Cleanup Recommendation Report

 

You will need instructor approval this week if you would like to choose a topic that is not on the list above.

While different audiences will require alternative formats, your Proposal should mimic the traditional example of an “internal proposal” on pages 435-442 of Technical Communication. It is important to note that proposals are preliminary documents written to gain management’s approval (pages 109-110) for the writer to engage in tasks that lead to a Recommendation Report. A proposal also promises “deliverables” (page 422-424) that a Recommendation Report must produce.

To complete your Proposal for this week, you are required to include the following sections in the order presented below:

1. APA Cover Page.
2. Audience Analysis: Address all of the questions on pages 87-91. Insert this document at the beginning of your Proposal in order to justify your proposal’s objective, direction, and constraints.
3. Purpose: In the most concise terms, explain the purpose of your Proposal, which is to introduce your Recommendation Report topic to your audience.
4. Summary: Include a summary, which serves “as an advance organizer” (page 454) of the information contained in the full Proposal.
5. Introduction: Provide an explanation of the problem or question you hope to eventually answer in your Final Project. The Introduction section of your Proposal is where you will provide context and background for what gave rise to the need to produce these documents.
6. Proposed tasks: Includes the methodology of the Final Project broken down into clear and measurable segments. In this section of your Proposal, you must anticipate all tasks that will lead to the completion of the Recommendation Report. It is recommended that you review Chapter 18, pages 515-532 to help you complete this section.
7. Schedule: Provide a timeline for the completion of the above tasks and the entire Final Project – Recommendation Report (Gantt charts on pages 434-442).
8. Experience: Include your credentials or future goals in relation to the subject matter References in APA format. This section should be at least 150 words in length.
9. Include at least four sources in addition to the course textbook that are amply and appropriately cited in the text of the document and listed on the Reference page. Two sources must be scholarly journal articles from the Ashford University Library.

In Week Two, you will be asked to initiate research on the topic of your Final Project

Required Resources

Required Text

Markel, M. (2015). Technical communication (11th ed.).  Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin’s.

· Chapter 1: Introduction to Technical Communication

· Chapter 2: Understanding Ethical and Legal Considerations

· Chapter 3: Writing Technical Documents

· Chapter 5: Analyzing your Audience and Purpose

· Chapter 16: Writing Proposals

Multimedia

expertvillage. (2008, July 6). Writing a formal business proposal: Formal business proposal report introduction (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.. [Video file]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iT2xbQ05Aus&feature=youtu.be

· This video offers you a brief, easy-to-understand overview of a business proposal (the type of document you will be creating for your Final Project).

expertvillage. (2008, July 6). Writing a formal business proposal: Formal business proposal table of contents (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.. [Video file]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i08Nm0gXvbU&feature=youtu.be

· For your audience to understand your information, it needs to be well-organized. Watch this video for information on a proposal’s table of contents.

Recommended Resource

Text

Markel, M. (2015). Technical communication (11th ed). New York City, NY: Bedford/St. Martin’s. (Chapters are as below)

· Chapter 18: Writing Recommendation Reports

· Pages 515-532. This section of the chapter provides information about how a Recommendation Report “can be the final link in a chain of documents that begins with a proposal” (page 517).

GRADING RUBICS FOR ASSIGNMENT:

Total Possible Score: 8.00

Audience Analysis

Total: 1.50

Distinguished – Includes a well-written audience analysis, and thoroughly addresses all of the required questions on pages 87 – 91. 

Purpose, Summary, and Introduction of Proposal

Total: 3.00

Distinguished – Clearly and concisely explains the purpose of the proposal, includes a succinct summary of the rhetorical situation, and comprehensively explains the problem or question that will be answered in the Recommendation Report.

Includes the Methodology of the Final Project Broken Down Into Clear and Measurable Segments

Total: 1.00

Distinguished – Includes a clear and comprehensive methodology of the Final Project broken down into clear and measurable segments.

Provides a Timeline for the Completion of Each Task for the Proposal and for the Entire Final Project

Total: 0.50

Distinguished – Provides a clear and comprehensive timeline for completion of each task for the proposal and for the entire Final Project.

Experience

Total: 0.50

Distinguished – Clearly and comprehensively includes the student’s credentials or future goals in relation to the subject matter. 

Reading: Interpretation

Total: 0.25

Distinguished – Demonstrates an understanding of the multiple ways of reading and the range of interpretive strategies particular to a discipline or in a given community of readers.

Reading: Comprehension

Total: 0.25

Distinguished – Distinguishes probable implications of the text for contexts, perspectives, or issues outside the assigned task or beyond the author’s explicit message.

Written Communication: Context of and Purpose for Writing

Total: 0.25

Distinguished – Demonstrates methodical application of organization and presentation of content. The purpose of the writing is evident and easy to understand. Summaries, quotes, and/or paraphrases fit naturally into the sentences and paragraphs. Paper flows smoothly.

Written Communication: Content Development

Total: 0.25

Distinguished – Uses appropriate, pertinent, and persuasive content to discover and develop sophisticated ideas within the context of the discipline, shaping the work as a whole.

Written Communication: Control of Syntax and Mechanics

Total: 0.13

Distinguished – Displays meticulous comprehension and organization of syntax and mechanics, such as spelling and grammar. Written work contains no errors and is very easy to understand.

Written Communication: Page Requirement

Total: 0.12

Distinguished – The length of the paper is equivalent to the required number of correctly formatted pages. 

Written Communication: Resource Requirement

Total: 0.12

Distinguished – Uses more than the required number of scholarly sources, providing compelling evidence to support ideas. All sources on the reference page are used and cited correctly within the body of the assignment.

Written Communication: APA Formatting

Total: 0.13

Distinguished – Accurately uses APA formatting consistently throughout the paper, title page, and reference page.

Chapter 1

Markel, M. (2015). Technical communication (11th ed.).  Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin’s.

CHAPTER 1

The Challenges of Producing Technical Communication

Most people in the working world don’t look forward to producing technical communication. Why? Because it’s hard to do.

For instance, your supervisor has finally approved your request to buy a scanning-electron microscope (SEM) for your department and given you a bud- get for buying it. It would be nice if all you had to do now was list the important features you need in an SEM, read a couple of articles about SEMs, check off the ones that have those features, and then buy the best one that fits your budget.

Unfortunately, life is not that simple, and neither is technical communica- tion. If it were, this book would be about a dozen pages long.

Technical communication is challenging, and not primarily because SEMs are complex devices, although they are. Technical communication is chal- lenging because people are complicated, and collaborating with people is at the heart of the process.

As soon as you have decided you need an SEM that can detect signals for secondary electrons, for instance, someone on your team argues that you also need to detect signals for back-scattered electrons and characteristic X-rays. Someone else on the team disagrees, arguing that an SEM that detects those additional signals costs an additional $15,000, putting it beyond your budget, and that on those rare occasions when you need those functions you can send the samples out for analysis. Another team member asks if you’re aware that, next year, SEM manufacturers are expected to release products with improved signal-detection functions. She thinks, therefore, that the team might want to wait until those new models are released. You realize that with the complica- tions your colleagues have presented, you won’t be purchasing an SEM any time soon. You do more research, keeping their concerns in mind.

The good news is that there are ways to think about these kinds of com- plications, to think through them, that will help you communicate better. No matter what document you produce or contribute to, you need to begin by considering three sets of factors:

• Audience-related factors. Does your audience know enough about your subject to understand a detailed discussion, or do you need to limit the scope, the amount of technical detail, or the type of graphics you use? Does your audience already have certain attitudes or expectations about your subject that you wish to reinforce or change? Will the ways in which your audience uses your document, or the physical environment in which they use it, affect how you write? Does your audience speak English well, or should you present the information in several languages? Does your audience share your cultural assumptions about such matters as the need to spell out details or how to organize the document, or do you need to adjust your writing style to match a different set of assumptions? Does your audience include people with disabilities (of vision, hearing, movement, or cognitive ability) who have needs you want to meet?

• Purpose-related factors. Before you can write, you need to determine your purpose: what do you want your audience to know or believe or do after having read your document? Although much technical communication is intended to help people perform tasks, such as installing a portable hard drive for a computer, many organizations large and small devote significant communication resources to branding: creating an image

that helps customers distinguish the company from competitors. Most companies now employ community specialists to coordinate the organization’s day-to-day online presence and its social-media campaigns. These specialists publicize new products and initiatives and respond to new developments and incidents. They also oversee all of the organization’s documents—from tweets to blog posts to Facebook fan pages and company-sponsored discussion boards.

• Document-related factors. Does your budget limit the number of people you can enlist to help you or limit the size or shape of the document? Does your schedule limit how much information you can include in the document? Does your subject dictate what kind of document (such as a report or a blog post) you choose to write? Does the application call for a particular writing style or level of formality? (For the sake of convenience, I will use the word document throughout this book to refer to all forms of technical communication, from written documents to oral presentations and online forms, such as podcasts and wikis.)

Because all these factors interact in complicated ways, every techni- cal document you create involves a compromise. If you are writing a set of instructions for installing a water heater and you want those instructions to be easily understood by people who speak only Spanish, you will need more time and a bigger budget to have the document translated, and it will be longer and thus a little bit harder to use, for both English and Spanish speak- ers. You might need to save money by using smaller type, smaller pages, and cheaper paper, and you might not be able to afford to print it in full color. In technical communication, you do the best you can with your resources of time, information, and money. The more carefully you think through your options, the better able you will be to use your resources wisely and make a document that will get the job done.

Characteristics of a Technical Document

Almost every technical document that gets the job done has six major char- acteristics:

• It addresses particular readers. Knowing who the readers are, what they understand about the subject, how well they speak English, and how they will use the document will help you decide what kind of document to write, how to structure it, how much detail to include, and what sentence style and vocabulary to use.

• It helps readers solve problems. For instance, you might produce a video that explains to your company’s employees how to select their employee benefits, or a document spelling out the company’s policy on using social media in the workplace.

• It reflects the organization’s goals and culture. For example, a state government department that oversees vocational-education programs submits an annual report to the state legislature in an effort to secure continued funding, as well as a lot of technical information to the public in an effort to educate its audience. And technical documents also reflect the organization’s culture. For example, many organizations encourage their employees to blog about their areas of expertise to create a positive image of the organization.

• It is produced collaboratively. No one person has all the information, skills, or time to create a large document. You will work with subject-matter experts—the various technical professionals—to create a better document than you could have made working alone. You will routinely post questions to networks of friends and associates—both inside and outside your own organization—to get answers to technical questions.

• It uses design to increase readability. Technical communicators use design features—such as typography, spacing, and color—to make a document attractive so that it creates a positive impression, helps readers navigate the document, and helps readers understand it.

• It consists of words or images or both. Images—both static and moving— can make a document more interesting and appealing to readers and help the writer communicate and reinforce difficult concepts, communicate instructions and descriptions of objects and processes, communicate large amounts of quantifiable data, and communicate with nonnative speakers.

Measures of Excellence in Technical Documents

Eight characteristics distinguish excellent technical documents:

• Honesty. The most important measure of excellence in a technical document is honesty. You need to tell the truth and not mislead the reader, not only because it is the right thing to do but also because readers can get hurt if you are dishonest. Finally, if you are dishonest, you and your organization could face serious legal charges. If a court finds that your document’s failure to provide honest, appropriate information caused a substantial injury or loss, your organization might have to pay millions of dollars.

• Clarity. Your goal is to produce a document that conveys a single meaning the reader can understand easily. An unclear technical document can be dangerous. A carelessly drafted building code, for example, could tempt contractors to use inferior materials or techniques. In addition, an unclear technical document is expensive. Handling a telephone call to a customer- support center costs $5–10 for a simple question but about $20–45 for a more complicated problem—and about a third of the calls are the more expensive kind (Carlaw, 2010). Clear technical communication in the product’s documentation (its user instructions) can greatly reduce the number and length of such calls.

• Accuracy. A slight inaccuracy can confuse and annoy your readers; a major inaccuracy can be dangerous and expensive. In another sense, accuracy is a question of ethics. Technical documents must be as objective and unbiased as you can make them. If readers suspect that you are slanting information—by overstating or omitting facts—they will doubt the validity of the entire document.

• Comprehensiveness. A good technical document provides all the information readers need. It describes the background so that readers unfamiliar with the subject can understand it. It contains sufficient detail so that readers can follow the discussion and carry out any required tasks. It refers to supporting materials clearly or includes them as attachments. A comprehensive document provides readers with a complete, self- contained discussion that enables them to use the information safely, effectively, and efficiently.

• Accessibility. Most technical documents are made up of small, independent sections. Because few people will read a document from the beginning to the end, your job is to make its various parts accessible. That is, readers should not be forced to flip through the pages or click links unnecessarily to find the appropriate section.

• Conciseness. A document must be concise enough to be useful to a busy reader. You can shorten most writing by 10 to 20 percent simply by eliminating unnecessary phrases, choosing shorter words, and using economical grammatical forms. Your job is to figure out how to convey a lot of information economically.

• Professional appearance. You start to communicate before anyone reads the first word of the document. If the document looks neat and professional, readers will form a positive impression of it and of you. Your document should adhere to the format standards of your organization or your professional field, and it should be well designed. For example, a letter should follow one of the traditional letter formats and have generous margins.

• Correctness. A correct document is one that adheres to the conventions of grammar, punctuation, spelling, mechanics, and usage. Sometimes, incorrect writing can confuse readers or even make your writing inaccurate. The more typical problem, however, is that incorrect writing makes you look unprofessional. If your writing is full of errors, readers will wonder if you were also careless in gathering, analyzing, and presenting the technical information. If readers doubt your professionalism, they will be less likely to accept your conclusions or follow your recommendations.

Skills and Qualities Shared by Successful Workplace Communicators

People who are good at communicating in the workplace share a number of skills and qualities. Four of them relate to the skills you have been honing in school and in college:

• Ability to perform research. Successful communicators know how to perform primary research (discovering new information through experiments, observations, interviews, surveys, and calculations) and secondary research (finding existing information by reading what others have written or said). Successful communicators seek out information from people who use the products and services, not just from the manufacturers. Therefore, although successful communicators would visit the Toyota website to learn about the technical specifications of a Prius if they wanted to find out what it is like to drive, own, or repair a Prius, they would be sure to search the Internet for information from experts not associated with Toyota, as well as user-generated content: information from owners, presented in forums such as discussion boards and blogs.

• Ability to analyze information. Successful communicators know how to identify the best information—most accurate, relevant, recent, and unbiased—and then figure out how it helps in understanding a problem and ways to solve it. Successful communicators know how to sift through mountains of data, identifying relationships between apparently unrelated facts. They know how to evaluate a situation, look at it from other people’s perspectives, and zero in on the most important issues.

• Ability to solve problems. Successful communicators know how to break big problems into smaller ones, figure out what isn’t working right, and identify and assess options for solving the problems. They know how to compare and contrast the available options to achieve the clearest, most objective understanding of the situation.

• Ability to speak and write clearly. Successful communicators know how to express themselves clearly and simply, both to audiences that know a lot about the subject and to audiences that do not. They take care to revise, edit, and proofread their documents so that the documents present accurate information, are easy to read, and make a professional impression. And they know how to produce different types of documents, from tweets to memos to presentations.

In addition to the skills just described, successful workplace communicators have seven qualities that relate to professional attitudes and work habits:

• They are honest. Successful communicators tell the truth. They don’t promise what they know they can’t deliver, and they don’t bend facts. When they make mistakes, they admit them and work harder to solve the problem.

• They are willing to learn. Successful communicators know that they don’t know everything—not about what they studied in college, what their company does, or how to write and speak. Every professional is a lifelong learner.

• They display emotional intelligence. Because technical communication usually calls for collaboration, successful communicators understand their own emotions and those of others. Because they can read people— through body language, facial expression, gestures, and words—they can work effectively in teams, helping to minimize interpersonal conflict and encouraging others to do their best work.

• They are generous. Successful communicators reply to requests for information from colleagues inside and outside their own organizations, and they share information willingly. (Of course, they don’t share confidential information, such as trade secrets, information about new products being developed, or personal information about colleagues.)

• They monitor the best information. Successful communicators seek out opinions from others in their organization and in their industry. They monitor the best blogs, discussion boards, and podcasts for new approaches that can spark their own ideas. They use tools such as RSS (really simple syndication or rich site summary, a utility that notifies users when new content appears on sites they follow) to help them stay on top of the torrent of new information on the Internet. They know how to use social media and can represent their organization online.

• They are self-disciplined. Successful communicators are well organized and diligent. They know, for instance, that proofreading an important document might not be fun but is always essential. They know that when a colleague asks a simple technical question, answering the question today—or tomorrow at the latest—is more helpful than answering it in a couple of weeks. They finish what they start, and they always do their best on any document, from the least important text message to the most

important report.

• They can prioritize and respond quickly. Successful communicators know that the world doesn’t always conform to their own schedules. Because social media never sleep, communicators sometimes need to put their current projects aside in order to respond immediately when a stakeholder reports a problem that needs prompt action or publishes inaccurate information that can hurt the organization. And even though speed is critically important, they know that quality is, too; therefore, they make sure every document is fully professional before it goes out.

How Communication Skills and Qualities Affect Your Career

Many college students believe that the most important courses they take are those in their major. Some biology majors think, for example, that if they just take that advanced course in genetic analysis, employers will con- clude that they are prepared to do more-advanced projects and therefore hire them.

Therefore, many college students are surprised to learn that what employ- ers say they are looking for in employees are the communication skills and qualities discussed in the previous section. Surveys over the past three or four decades have shown consistently that employers want people who can communicate. Look at it this way: when employers hire a biologist, they want a person who can communicate effectively about biology. When they hire a civil engineer, they want a person who can communicate about civil engi- neering.

A 2012 survey by Millennial Branding, a research and management con- sulting firm that helps companies find and train Generation Y employees, sifted data from more than 100,000 U.S. companies. The results showed that 98 percent of those companies named communication skills as extremely important for new employees (Millennial Branding, 2012). The next two most important characteristics? Having a positive attitude (97 percent) and team- work skills (92 percent).

Job Outlook 2013, a report produced by the National Association of Col- leges and Employers, found that communication skills, teamwork skills, and problem-solving skills top the list of skills and qualities that employers seek. Their main conclusion: “. . . the ideal candidate is a good communicator who can make decisions and solve problems while working effectively in a team” (National Association, 2012, p. 31). On a 5-point scale, where 5 equals “extremely important,” here are the top ten skills and qualities, according to employers, and the scores they earned:

SkiLL or AbiLiTY

SCorE

Ability to verbally communicate with persons inside and outside the 4.63 organization

Ability to work in a team structure 4.60

Ability to make decisions and solve problems 4.51

Ability to plan, organize, and prioritize work 4.46

Ability to obtain and process information 4.43

Ability to analyze quantitative data 4.30

Technical knowledge related to the job 3.99

Proficiency with computer software programs 3.95

Ability to create and/or edit written reports 3.56

Ability to sell or influence others 3.55

Most of these skills relate back to the previous discussion about the impor- tance of process in technical communication.

A study of more than 100 large American corporations, which together employ 8 million people, suggests that writing is a more important skill for professionals today than it ever has been (College Entrance Examination Board, 2004, pp. 3–4). Two-thirds of professionals need strong writing skills in their daily work. Fifty percent of all companies in all industries consider writ- ing skills in making promotion decisions. And almost half of the largest U.S. companies offer or require training for professionals who cannot write well (College Entrance Examination Board, 2004, p. 4). These companies spend, on average, $900 per employee for writing training. Would a company rather not have to spend that $900? Yes.

You’re going to be producing and contributing to a lot of technical docu- ments, not only in this course but also throughout your career. The facts of life in the working world are simple: the better you communicate, the more valuable you are. This textbook can help you learn and practice the skills that will make you a better communicator.

A Look at Three Technical Documents

Figures 1.1, 1.2 (page 14), and 1.3 (page 15) present excerpts from technical documents. Together, they illustrate a number of the ideas about technical communication discussed in this chapter.

Chapter 2

Markel, M. (2015). Technical communication (11th ed.).  Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin’s.

CHAPTER 2

Ethical and lEgal issuEs are all around you in your work life. if you look at the website of any bike manufacturer, for example, you will see that bicyclists are always shown wearing helmets. is this because bike manufacturers care about safety? Certainly. But bike makers also care about product liability. if a company website showed cyclists without helmets, an injured cyclist might sue, claiming that the company was suggesting it is safe to ride without a helmet.

ethical and legal pitfalls lurk in the words and graphics of many kinds of formal documents. in producing a proposal, you might be tempted to exaggerate or lie about your organization’s past accomplishments, pad the résumés of the project personnel, list as project personnel some workers who will not be contributing

to the project, or present an unrealistically short work schedule. in drafting product information, you might feel pressured to exaggerate the quality of the products shown in catalogs or manuals or to downplay the hazards of using those products. in creating graphics, you might be asked to hide an item’s weaknesses by manipulating a photo of a product.

one thing is certain: there are many serious ethical and legal issues related to technical communication, and all professionals need a basic understanding of them.

a brief introduction to Ethics

Ethics is the study of the principles of conduct that apply to an individual or a group. For some people, ethics is a matter of intuition—what their gut feel- ings tell them about the rightness or wrongness of an act. Others see ethics in terms of their own religion or the Golden Rule: treat others as you would like them to treat you. Ethicist Manuel G. Velasquez outlines four moral stan-

dards that are useful in thinking about ethical dilemmas (2011):

• rights. This standard concerns individuals’ basic needs and welfare. Everyone agrees, for example, that people have a right to a reasonably safe workplace. When we buy a product, we have a right to expect that the information that accompanies it is honest and clear. However, not everything that is desirable is necessarily a right. For example, in some countries, high-quality health care is considered a right. That is, the government is required to provide it, regardless of whether a person can afford to pay for it. In other countries, health care is not considered a right.

• Justice. This standard concerns how the costs and benefits of an action or a policy are distributed among a group. For example, the cost of maintaining a high-speed broadband infrastructure should be borne, in part, by people who use it. However, because everyone benefits from the infrastructure, the standard of justice suggests that general funds can also be used to pay for it. Another example: justice requires that people doing the same job receive the same pay, regardless of whether they are male or female, black or white.

• utility. This standard concerns the positive and negative effects that an action or a policy has, will have, or might have on others. For example, if a company is considering closing a plant, the company’s leaders should consider not only the money they would save but also the financial hardship of laid-off workers and the economic effects on the community. One tricky issue in thinking about utility is figuring out the time frame to examine. An action such as laying off employees can have one effect in the short run—improving the company’s quarterly balance sheet—and a very different effect in the long run—hurting the company’s productivity or the quality of its products.

• care. This standard concerns the relationships we have with other individuals. We owe care and consideration to all people, but we have greater responsibilities to people in our families, our workplaces, and our communities. The closer a person is to us, the greater care we owe that person. Therefore, we have greater obligations to members of our family than we do to others in our community.

Although these standards provide a vocabulary for thinking about how to resolve ethical conflicts, they are imprecise and often conflict with each other. Therefore, they cannot provide a systematic method of resolving ethi- cal conflicts. Take the case of a job opportunity in your company. You are a member of the committee that will recommend which of six applicants to hire. One of the six is a friend of yours who has been unable to secure a pro- fessional job since graduating from college two years ago. She therefore does not have as much relevant workplace experience as the other five candidates. However, she is enthusiastic about gaining experience in this particular field—and eager to start paying off her student loans.

How can the four standards help you think through the situation? Accord- ing to the rights standard, lobbying for your friend or against the other appli- cants would be wrong because all applicants have an ethical right to an eval- uation process that considers only their qualifications to do the job. Looking at the situation from the perspective of justice yields the same conclusion: it would be wrong to favor your friend. From the perspective of utility, lobbying for your friend would probably not be in the best interests of the organiza- tion, although it might be in your friend’s best interests. Only according to the care standard does lobbying for your friend seem reasonable.

As you think about this case, you have to consider a related question: should you tell the other people on the hiring committee that one of the applicants is your friend? Yes, because they have a right to know about your personal relationship so that they can better evaluate your contributions to the discussion. You might also offer to recuse yourself (that is, not participate in the discussion of this position), leaving it to the other committee members to decide whether your friendship with a candidate represents a conflict of interest.

One more complication in thinking about this case: Let’s say your friend is one of the top two candidates for the job. In your committee, which is made up of seven members, three vote for your friend, but four vote for the other candidate, who already has a very good job. She is a young, highly skilled employee with degrees from prestigious universities. In other words, she is likely to be very successful in the working world, regardless of whether she is offered this particular job. Should the fact that your friend has yet to start her own career affect your thinking about this problem? Some people would say no: the job should be offered to the most qualified applicant. Others would say yes: society does not adequately provide for its less- fortunate members, and because your friend needs the job more and is almost as qualified as the other top applicant, she should get the offer. In other words, some people would focus on the narrow, technical question of determining the best candidate for the job, whereas others would see a much broader social question involving human rights.

Most people do not explore the conflict among rights, justice, utility, and care when they confront a serious ethical dilemma; instead, they simply do what they think is right. Perhaps this is good news. However, the depth of ethical thinking varies dramatically from one person to another, and the consequences of superficial ethical thinking can be profound. For these rea- sons, ethicists have described a general set of principles that can help people organize their thinking about the role of ethics within an organizational context. These principles form a web of rights and obligations that connect an employee, an organization, and the world in which the organization is situated.

For example, in exchange for their labor, employees enjoy three basic rights: fair wages, safe and healthy working conditions, and due process in the handling of such matters as promotions, salary increases, and firing.

Although there is still serious debate about the details of employee rights, such as whether they have the right to freedom from surreptitious surveil- lance and unreasonable searches in drug investigations, the debate almost always concerns the extent of employees’ rights, not the existence of the basic rights themselves. For instance, ethicists disagree about whether hiring undercover investigators to identify drug users at a job site is an unwar- ranted intrusion on employees’ rights, but there is no debate about employ- ees’ right to freedom from unwarranted intrusion.

Your Ethical Obligations

In addition to enjoying rights, an employee assumes obligations, which can form a clear and reasonable framework for discussing the ethics of technical communication. The following discussion outlines three sets of obligations that you have as an employee: to your employer, to the public, and to the environment.

OBLIgATIOnS TO YOUR EMPLOYER

You are hired to further your employer’s legitimate aims and to refrain from any activities that run counter to those aims. Specifically, you have five obli- gations:

• competence and diligence. Competence refers to your skills; you should have the training and experience to do the job adequately. Diligence simply means hard work. Unfortunately, in a recent survey of 10,000 workers, the typical worker wastes nearly two hours of his or her eight-hour day surfing the web, socializing with co-workers, and doing other tasks unrelated to his or her job (Malachowski, 2013).

• generosity. Although generosity might sound like an unusual obligation, you are obligated to help your co-workers and stakeholders outside your organization by sharing your knowledge and expertise. What this means is that if you are asked to respond to appropriate questions or provide recommendations on some aspect of your organization’s work, you should do so. If a customer or supplier contacts you, make the time to respond helpfully. Generosity shows professionalism and furthers your organization’s goals.

• honesty and candor. You should not steal from your employer. Stealing includes such practices as embezzlement, “borrowing” office supplies, and padding expense accounts. Candor means truthfulness; you should report to your employer problems that might threaten the quality or safety of the organization’s product or service.

Issues of honesty and candor include what Sigma Xi, the Scientific Research Society, calls trimming, cooking, and forging (Sigma Xi, 2000, p. 11). Trimming is the smoothing of irregularities to make research data look extremely accurate and precise. Cooking is retaining only those results that fit the theory and discarding the others. And forging is inventing some or all of the data or even reporting experiments that were never performed. In carrying out research, employees must resist any pressure to report only positive findings.

• confidentiality. You should not divulge company business outside of the company. If a competitor finds out that your company is planning to introduce a new product, it might introduce its own version of that product, robbing you of your competitive advantage. Many other kinds of privileged information—such as information on quality-control problems, personnel matters, relocation or expansion plans, and financial restructuring—also could be used against the company. A well-known confidentiality problem involves insider information: an employee who knows about a development that will increase (or decrease) the value

of the company’s stock, for example, buys (or sells) the stock before the information is made public, thus unfairly—and illegally—reaping a profit (or avoiding a loss).

• loyalty. You should act in the employer’s interest, not in your own. Therefore, it is unethical to invest heavily in a competitor’s stock, because that could jeopardize your objectivity and judgment. For the same reason, it is unethical (and illegal) to accept bribes or kickbacks. It is unethical to devote considerable time to moonlighting (performing an outside job, such as private consulting), because the outside job could lead to a conflict of interest and because the heavy workload could make you less productive in your primary position. However, you do not owe your employer absolute loyalty; if your employer is acting unethically, you have an obligation to try to change that behavior—even, if necessary, by blowing the whistle.

OBLIgATIOnS TO ThE PUBLIC

Every organization that offers products or provides services is obligated to treat its customers fairly. As a representative of an organization, and espe- cially as an employee communicating technical information, you will fre- quently confront ethical questions.

In general, an organization is acting ethically if its product or service is both safe and effective. The product or service must not injure or harm the consumer, and it must fulfill its promised function. However, these com- monsense principles provide little guidance in dealing with the complicated ethical problems that arise routinely.

According to the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (2011), more than 4,500 deaths and 14 million injuries occur each year in the United States because of consumer products—not counting automobiles and medications. Even more common, of course, are product and service failures: products or services don’t do what they are supposed to do, products are difficult to assemble or operate, they break down, or they require more expensive maintenance than the product information indicates.

Who is responsible for injuries and product failures: the company that provides the product or service or the consumer who purchases it? In indi- vidual cases, blame is sometimes easy enough to determine. A person who operates a chainsaw without reading the safety information and without seeking any instruction in how to use it is to blame for any injuries caused by the normal operation of the saw. But a manufacturer that knows that the chain on the saw is liable to break under certain circumstances and fails to remedy this problem or warn the consumer is responsible for any resulting accidents.

Unfortunately, these principles do not outline a rational theory that can help companies understand how to act ethically in fulfilling their obliga- tions to the public. Today, most court rulings are based on the premise that the manufacturer knows more about its products than the consumer does and therefore has a greater responsibility to make sure the products comply with all of the manufacturer’s claims and are safe. Therefore, in designing, manufacturing, testing, and communicating about a product, the manufacturer has to make sure the product will be safe and effective when used according to the instructions. However, the manufacturer is not liable when something goes wrong that it could not have foreseen or prevented.

OBLIgATIOnS TO ThE EnvIROnMEnT

One of the most important lessons we have learned in recent decades is that we are polluting and depleting our limited natural resources at an unac- ceptably high rate. Our excessive use of fossil fuels not only deprives future generations of them but also causes possibly irreversible pollution problems, such as global warming. Everyone—government, businesses, and individu- als—must work to preserve the environment to ensure the survival not only of our own species but also of the other species with which we share the planet.

But what does this have to do with you? In your daily work, you prob- ably do not cause pollution or deplete the environment in any extraordi- nary way. Yet you will often know how your organization’s actions affect the environment. For example, if you work for a manufacturing company, you might be aware of the environmental effects of making or using your company’s products. Or you might help write an environmental impact statement.

As communicators, we should treat every actual or potential occurrence of environmental damage seriously. We should alert our supervisors to the situation and work with them to try to reduce the damage. The difficulty, of course, is that protecting the environment can be expensive. Clean fuels usually cost more than dirty ones. Disposing of hazardous waste properly costs more (in the short run) than merely dumping it. Organizations that want to reduce costs may be tempted to cut corners on environmental protection.

Your legal Obligations

Although most people believe that ethical obligations are more comprehen- sive and more important than legal obligations, the two sets of obligations are closely related. Our ethical values have shaped many of our laws. For this reason, professionals should know the basics of four different bodies of law: copyright, trademark, contract, and liability.

COPYRIghT LAW

As a student, you are frequently reminded to avoid plagiarism. A student caught plagiarizing would likely fail the assignment and possibly the course and might even be expelled from school. A medical researcher or a reporter caught plagiarizing would likely be fired or at least find it difficult to publish in the future. But plagiarism is an ethical, not a legal, issue. Although a pla- giarist might be expelled from school or be fired, he or she will not be fined or sent to prison.

By contrast, copyright is a legal issue. Copyright law is the body of law that relates to the appropriate use of a person’s intellectual property: written documents, pictures, musical compositions, and the like. Copyright literally refers to a person’s right to copy the work that he or she has created.

The most important concept in copyright law is that only the copyright holder—the person or organization that owns the work—can copy it. For instance, if you work for Zipcar, you can legally copy information from the Zipcar website and use it in other Zipcar documents. This reuse of informa- tion is routine in business, industry, and government because it helps ensure that the information a company distributes is both consistent and accurate.

However, if you work for Zipcar, you cannot simply copy information that you find on the Car2Go website and put it in Zipcar publications. Unless you obtained written permission from Car2Go to use its intellectual property, you would be infringing on Car2Go’s copyright.

Why doesn’t the Zipcar employee who writes the information for Zipcar own the copyright to that information? The answer lies in a legal concept known as work made for hire. Anything written or revised by an employee on the job is the company’s property, not the employee’s.

Although copyright gives the owner of the intellectual property some rights, it doesn’t give the owner all rights. You can place small portions of copyrighted text in your own document without getting formal permission from the copyright holder. When you quote a few lines from an article, for example, you are taking advantage of a part of copyright law called fair use. Under fair-use guidelines, you have the right to use a portion of a published work, without getting permission, for purposes such as criticism, commen- tary, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, or research. Because fair use is based on a set of general guidelines that are meant to be interpreted on a case-by-case basis, you should still cite the source accurately to avoid potential plagiarism.

Courts consider four factors in disputes over fair use:

the purpose and character of the use, especially whether the use is for profit.

Profit-making organizations are scrutinized more carefully than nonprofits.

the nature and purpose of the copyrighted work. When the information is es- sential to the public—for example, medical information—the fair-use principle is applied more liberally.

the amount and substantiality of the portion of the work used. A 200-word passage would be a small portion of a book but a large portion of a 500-word brochure.

the effect of the use on the potential market for the copyrighted work. Any use of the work that is likely to hurt the author’s potential to profit from the original work would probably not be considered fair use.

A new trend is for copyright owners to stipulate which rights they wish to retain and which they wish to give up. You might see references to Creative Commons, a not-for-profit organization that provides symbols for copyright owners to use to communicate their preferences. Figure 2.1 shows four of the Creative Commons symbols.

FigurE 2.1 Selected Licensing Symbols from Creative Commons The organization has created a number of symbols to represent rights that copyright owners can retain or surrender.

 

UnDERSTAnDIng EThICAL AnD LEgAL COnSIDERATIOnS

Dealing with Copyright Questions

Consider the following advice when using material from another source.

abide by the fair-use concept. do not rely on excessive amounts of another source’s work (unless the information is your company’s own boilerplate).

seek permission. Write to the source, stating what portion of the work you wish to use and the publication you wish to use it in. the source is likely to charge you for permission.

cite your sources accurately. Citing sources fulfills your ethical obligation and strengthens your writing by showing the reader the range of your research.

consult legal counsel if you have questions. Copyright law is complex. don’t rely on instinct or common sense.

For more about documenting your sources, see Appendix, Part B.

Ethics nOtE

DISTIngUIShIng PLAgIARISM fROM ACCEPTABLE REUSE Of InfORMATIOn

Plagiarism is the act of using someone else’s words or ideas without giving credit to the origi- nal author. it doesn’t matter whether the writer intended to plagiarize. obviously, it is plagia- rism to borrow or steal graphics, video or audio media, written passages, or entire documents and then use them without attribution. Web-based sources are particularly vulnerable to pla- giarism, partly because people mistakenly think that if information is on the web it is free to borrow and partly because this material is so easy to copy, paste, and reformat.

however, writers within a company often reuse one another’s information without giving credit—and it is completely ethical. For instance, companies publish press releases when they wish to publicize news. these press releases typically conclude with descriptions of the company and how to get in touch with an employee who can answer questions about the company’s products or services. these descriptions, sometimes called boilerplate, are simply copied and pasted from previous press releases. Because these descriptions are legally the intellectual property of the company, reusing them in this way is completely honest. similarly, companies often repurpose their writing. that is, they copy a description of the company from a press release and paste it into a proposal or an annual report. this reuse also is acceptable.

When you are writing a document and need a passage that you suspect someone in your organization might already have written, ask a more-experienced co-worker whether the cul- ture of your organization permits reusing someone else’s writing. if the answer is yes, check with your supervisor to see whether he or she approves of what you plan to do.

TRADEMARk LAW

Companies use trademarks and registered trademarks to ensure that the public recognizes the name or logo of a product.

• A trademark is a word, phrase, name, or symbol that is identified with a company. The company uses the TM symbol after the product name to claim the design or device as a trademark. However, using this symbol does not grant the company any legal rights. It simply sends a message to

other organizations that the company is claiming a trademark.

• A registered trademark is a word, phrase, name, or symbol that the company has registered with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. The company can then use the ® symbol after the trademarked item. Registering a trademark, a process that can take years, ensures much more legal protection than a simple trademark throughout the United States, as well as in other nations. Although a company is not required to use the symbol, doing so makes it easier to take legal action against another organization that it believes has infringed on its trademark.

All employees are responsible for using trademark and registered trademark symbols accurately when referring to a company’s products.

COnTRACT LAW

Contract law deals with agreements between two parties. In most cases, disputes concern whether a product lives up to the manufacturer’s claims. These claims take the form of express warranties or implied warranties.

An express warranty is a written or oral statement that the product has a particular feature or can perform a particular function. For example, a statement in a printer manual that the printer produces 17 pages per minute is an express warranty. An implied warranty is one of two kinds of non-written guaran- tees:

• The merchantability warranty guarantees that the product is of at least average quality and appropriate for the ordinary purposes it was intended to serve.

• The fitness warranty guarantees that the product is suitable for the buyer’s purpose if the seller knows that purpose. For example, if a car salesperson knows that a buyer wishes to pull a 5,000-pound trailer but also knows that a car cannot pull such a load, the salesperson is required to inform the buyer of this fact.

LIABILITY LAW

Under product-liability law, a manufacturer or seller of a product is liable for injuries or damages caused by the use of that product. Liability is an important

concern for communicators, because courts frequently rule that manufac- turers are responsible for providing adequate operating instructions and for warning consumers about the risks of using their products. Figure 2.2 shows a warning label used to inform people of how to avoid a safety risk.

Manufacturers of products used in the United States have a legal duty to warn users by providing safety labels on products (and the same information in their accompanying instructions) and by explaining in the instructions how to use the products safely. According to intellectual-property attorney Kenneth Ross (2011), the manufacturer has this duty to warn when all four of these characteristics apply:

1. The product is dangerous.

2. The danger is or should be known by the manufacturer.

3. The danger is present when the product is used in the usual and expected manner.

4. The danger is not obvious to or well known by the user.

The complication for technical communicators is that one set of guidelines regarding duty to warn is used in the United States (the American National Standards Institute’s ANSI Z535, last revised in 2011) and another set is used in the European Union (the International Organization for Standardization’s ISO 3864, which is updated periodically). Both sets of guidelines are relatively vague, and they contradict each other in important ways. Therefore, before publishing labels or instructions for products that can be dangerous, consult with an attorney who specializes in liability issues.

Pamela s. helyar summarizes the communicator’s obligations and offers ten guide- lines for abiding by liability laws (1992):

understand the product and its likely users. learn everything you can about the product and its users.

describe the product’s functions and limitations. help people determine whether it is the right product to buy. in one case, a manufacturer was found liable for not stating that its electric smoke alarm does not work during a power outage.

instruct users on all aspects of ownership. include assembly, installation, use and storage, testing, maintenance, first aid and emergencies, and disposal.

use appropriate words and graphics. use common terms, simple sentences, and brief paragraphs. structure the document logically, and include specific directions. Make graphics clear and easy to understand; where necessary, show people performing tasks. Make the words and graphics appropriate to the edu- cational level, mechanical ability, manual dexterity, and intelligence of intended users. For products that will be used by children or nonnative speakers of your language, include graphics illustrating important information.

warn users about the risks of using or misusing the product. Warn users about the dangers of using the product, such as chemical poisoning. describe the cause, extent, and seriousness of the danger. A car manufacturer was found liable for not having warned consumers that parking a car on grass, leaves, or other combustible material could cause a fire. For particularly dan- gerous products, explain the danger and how to avoid it, and then describe how to use the product safely. use mandatory language, such as must and shall, rather than might, could, or should. use the words warning and caution appropriately.

include warnings along with assertions of safety. When product information says that a product is safe, readers tend to pay less attention to warnings. there- fore, include detailed warnings to balance the safety claims.

make directions and warnings conspicuous. safety information must be in large type and easily visible, appear in an appropriate location, and be durable enough to withstand ordinary use of the product.

make sure that the instructions comply with applicable company standards and local, state, and federal laws.

perform usability testing on the product (to make sure it is safe and easy to use) and on the instructions (to make sure they are accurate and easy to under- stand).

make sure users receive the information. if you discover a problem after the product has been shipped to retailers, tell users by direct mail or email, if pos- sible, or newspaper and online advertising if not. Automobile-recall notices are one example of how manufacturers contact their users.

the role of corporate culture in Ethical and legal conduct

Most employees work within organizations, such as corporations and gov- ernment agencies. We know that organizations exert a powerful influence on their employees’ actions. According to a study by the Ethics Resource Center of more than 4,600 employees in various businesses (2012), organi- zations with strong ethical cultures—organizations in which ethical values are promoted at all levels and employees see that everyone lives up to the organization’s stated values—experience fewer ethical problems than orga- nizations with weak ethical cultures. In organizations with strong ethical cultures, far fewer employees feel pressure to commit misconduct, far fewer employees observe misconduct, far more employees report the misconduct that they see, and there is far less retaliation against employees who report misconduct.

Companies can take specific steps to improve their ethical culture:

• The organization’s leaders can set the right tone by living up to their commitment to ethical conduct.

• Supervisors can set good examples and encourage ethical conduct.

• Peers can support those employees who act ethically.

• The organization can use informal communication to reinforce the formal policies, such as those presented in a company code of conduct.

In other words, it is not enough for an organization to issue a statement that ethical and legal behavior is important. The organization has to create a culture that values and rewards ethical and legal behavior. That culture starts at the top and extends to all employees, and it permeates the day-to-day operations of the organization.

One company that has earned praise for its commitment to ethical and legal conduct is Texas Instruments (TI). Its culture is communicated on its website, which contains a comprehensive set of materials that describes how TI employees and suppliers are required to act and why (Texas Instruments, 2010). On the TI site are a number of resources, including a statement from the President and Chief Executive Officer, Rich Templeton, on the company’s core values of respect for people and the environment and trust in business relationships; the company’s formal code of conduct for all employees; its code of ethics for company officers; information about the company’s Ethics Office; links to all of its ethics publications; its statement of ethics for its suppliers; and detailed information on how to contact the IT Ethics Office confidentially.

Does the Texas Instruments culture improve conduct? Although that ques- tion is difficult to answer, the TI site lists some of the major awards the com- pany has won for its ethics program, presents data from its own employee surveys showing that employees think the company’s ethical culture is good, and describes the company’s outreach to communities and other organiza- tions that have established their own ethics programs.

An important element of a culture of ethical and legal conduct is a formal code of conduct. Most large corporations in the United States have one, as do almost all professional societies. (U.S. companies that are traded publicly are required to state whether they have a code of conduct—and if not, why not.) Codes of conduct vary greatly from organization to organization, but most of them address such issues as the following:

• adhering to local laws and regulations, including those intended to protect the environment

• avoiding discrimination • maintaining a safe and healthy workplace • respecting privacy • avoiding conflicts of interest • protecting the company’s intellectual property • avoiding bribery and kickbacks in working with suppliers and customers

A code of conduct focuses on behavior, including such topics as adhering to the law. Many codes of conduct are only a few paragraphs long; others are lengthy and detailed, some consisting of several volumes.

An effective code has three major characteristics:

• it protects the public rather than members of the organization or profession. For instance, the code should condemn unsafe building practices but not advertising, which increases competition and thus lowers prices.

• it is specific and comprehensive. A code is ineffective if it merely states that people must not steal or if it does not address typical ethical offenses such as bribery in companies that do business in other countries.

• it is enforceable. A code is ineffective if it does not stipulate penalties, including dismissal from the company or expulsion from the profession.

Although many codes are too vague to be useful in determining whether a person has violated one of their principles, writing and implementing a code can be valuable because it forces an organization to clarify its own values and fosters an increased awareness of ethical issues. Texas Instruments, like many organizations, encourages employees to report ethical problems to a committee or a person (sometimes called an ethics officer or an ombudsperson) who investigates and reaches an impartial decision.

If you think there is a serious ethical problem in your organization, find out what resources your organization offers to deal with it. If there are no resources, work with your supervisor to solve the problem.

What do you do if the ethical problem persists even after you have exhausted all the resources at your organization and, if appropriate, the pro- fessional organization in your field? The next step will likely involve whistle- blowing—the practice of going public with information about serious unethical conduct within an organization. For example, an engineer is blowing the whistle when she tells a regulatory agency or a newspaper that quality- control tests on a company product were faked.

Ethicists such as Velasquez (2011) argue that whistle-blowing is justified if you have tried to resolve the problem through internal channels, if you have strong evidence that the problem is hurting or will hurt other parties, and if the whistle-blowing is reasonably certain to prevent or stop the wrongdo- ing. But Velasquez also points out that whistle-blowing is likely to hurt the employee, his or her family, and other parties. Whistle-blowers can be penal- ized through negative performance appraisals, transfers to undesirable loca- tions, or isolation within the company. The Ethics Resource Center reports in its 2012 survey that 22 percent of whistle-blowers experienced retaliation (2012, p. 12).

understanding Ethical and legal issues related to social media

There is probably some truth to social-media consultant Peter Shankman’s comment “For the majority of us, social media is nothing more than a faster way to screw up in front of a larger number of people in a shorter amount of time” (Trillos-Decarie, 2012). As social media have become more important in the workplace, we are starting to get a better idea of both their rewards and their risks. Certainly, social media have created many new and exciting ways for people in the workplace to connect with each other and with other stakeholders outside the organization. However, the widespread use of social media by employees in the workplace and in their private lives also presents challenges.

User-generated content, whether it is posted to Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, YouTube, Google Groups, Yelp, Pinterest, or any of the many other online services, presents significant new ethical and legal issues. Just as employers are trying to produce social-media policies that promote the interests of the organization without infringing on employees’ rights of free expression, all of us need to understand the basics of ethical and legal prin- ciples related to these new media.

A 2012 report by the law firm Proskauer Rose LLP, “Social Media in the Workplace Around the World 2.0,” surveyed some 250 companies from the United States and many other countries. Here are some of the survey find- ings (Proskauer Rose LLP, 2012, p. 2):

• More than two-thirds of employers have social-media policies.

• More than one-third of employers monitor their employees’ use of social- media sites.

• One-quarter of employers block employee access to social media.

• Half of the employers reported problems caused by misuse of social media by employees. One-third of businesses have had to take disciplinary action against an employee for misuse of social media.

Over the next few years, organizations will revise their policies about how employees may use social media in the workplace, just as courts will clarify some of the more complicated issues related to social media and the law. For these reasons, what we now see as permissible and ethical is likely to change. Still, it is possible to identify a list of best practices that can help you use social media wisely—and legally—in your career.

Using Social Media Ethically and Legally

these nine guidelines can help you use social media to your advantage in your career.

keep your private social-media accounts separate from your company- sponsored accounts. After you leave a company, you don’t want to get into a dispute over who “owns” an account. Companies can argue, for example, that your collection of twitter followers is in fact a customer list and therefore the company’s intellectual property. Regardless of whether you post from the workplace or at home, post only about business on your company-sponsored accounts.

read the terms of service of every service to which you post. Although you retain the copyright on original content that you post, most social-media services state that they can re-post your content wherever and whenever they want, without informing you, getting your permission, or paying you. Many employers would consider this policy unacceptable.

avoid revealing unauthorized news about your own company. A company that wishes to apply for a patent for one of its products or processes has, ac- cording to the law, only one year to do so after the product or process is first mentioned or illustrated in a “printed publication.” Because courts have found that a photo on Facebook or a blog or even a tweet is equivalent to a printed publication (Bettinger, 2010), you could inadvertently start the clock ticking. even worse, some other company could use the information to apply for a patent for the product or process that your company is developing. or suppose that on your personal blog, you reveal that your company’s profits will dip in the next quarter. this information could prompt investors to sell shares of your company’s stock, thereby hurting everyone who owns shares—including you and most of your co-workers.

avoid self-plagiarism. self-plagiarizing is the act of publishing something you have already published. if you write an article for your company newsletter and later publish it on a blog, you are violating your company’s copyright, because your newsletter article was a work made for hire and therefore the company’s intellectual property.

avoid defaming anyone. defamation is the legal term for making false state- ments of fact about a person that could harm that person. defamation includes libel (making such statements in writing, as in a blog post) and slander (making them in speech, as in a video posted online). in addition, you should not re-post libelous or slanderous content that someone else has created.

don’t live stream or quote from a speech or meeting without permission. Al- though you may describe a speech or meeting online, you may not stream video or post quotations without permission.

avoid false endorsements. the Federal trade Commission has clear rules defin- ing false advertising. the most common type of false advertising involves posting a positive review of a product or company in exchange for some compensation. For instance, some unscrupulous software companies give reviewers a copy of the software to be reviewed (which is perfectly legal) loaded on an expensive computer that the reviewers can keep. unless the reviewer explicitly notes in the review the compensation from the software company, posting the positive re- view is considered false advertising. similarly, you should not endorse your own company’s products without stating your relationship with the company (u.s. Federal trade Commission, 2009).

avoid impersonating someone else online. if that person is real (whether alive or dead), you could be violating his or her right of publicity (the right to control his or her name, image, or likeness). if that person is a fictional character, such as a character on a tv show or in a movie, you could be infringing on the copyright of whoever created that character.

avoid infringing on trademarks by using protected logos or names. don’t include copyrighted or trademarked names, slogans, or logos in your posts unless you have received permission to do so. even if the trademark owner likes your content, you probably will be asked to stop posting it. if the trade- mark owner dislikes your content, you are likely to face a more aggressive legal response.

Finally, a related suggestion: avoid criticizing your employer online. Although defamation laws forbid making untrue factual statements about your employer, you are in fact permitted to criticize your employer, online or offline. The National Labor Relations Board has ruled that doing so is legal because it is protected discussion about “working conditions.” My advice: if you’re angry, move away from the keyboard. Once you post something, you’ve lost control of it.

However, if you think your employer is acting illegally or unethically, start by investigating the company’s own resources for addressing such problems. Then, if you are still dissatisfied, consider whistle-blowing, which is dis- cussed on p. 31.

dOcumEnt analysis activity

Presenting Guidelines for Using Social Media

1 Overview

in today’s world, just about everything we do online can be traced back to us and can have an impact (for better or worse) on a company. Paragon wants to remind you that the company policies on anti-harassment, ethics, and company loyalty extend to all media. there is a certain etiquette you should abide by when you participate online. this document is not intended to be restrictive, but to provide some guidelines on proper social-networking etiquette.

2 What Are Social Media? social media are the tools and content that enable people to connect online,

share their interests, and engage in conversations.

Guidelines

these policies apply to individuals who want to participate in social-media conversations on behalf of Paragon. Please be mindful that your behavior at all times reflects on Paragon as a whole. do not write or post anything that might reflect negatively on Paragon.

3 •

Always use your best judgment and be honest. • Be respectful of confidential information (such as clients, financials). • Always be professional, especially when accepting criticism. • Participate, don’t promote. Bring value. Give to get. • Write only about what you know. • When in doubt, ask for help/clarification.

• Seek approval before commenting on any articles that portray Paragon negatively.

This excerpt is from a corporate social-media policy statement. The questions below ask you to think about how to make the policy statement clearer and more useful (as discussed on page 33).

1. The “Overview” section discusses the company’s social-media policy guide- lines in terms of etiquette. In what way is “etiquette” an appropriate word to describe the policy? In what way is it inappropriate?

2. The “What Are Social Media?” section provides little useful information. What other information might it include to make the document more useful to Paragon employees?

3. The bulleted guidelines are vague. Revise any two of them to include more specific information.

(Markel 35)

communicating Ethically across cultures

Every year, the United States exports more than $2.1 trillion worth of goods and services to the rest of the world (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012, p. 832). U.S. companies do not necessarily have the same ethical and legal obligations when they export as when they sell in the United States. For this reason, communicators should understand the basics of two aspects of writing for people in other countries: communicating with cultures with different ethical beliefs and communicating in countries with differ- ent laws.

COMMUnICATIng WITh CULTURES

WITh DIffEREnT EThICAL BELIEfS

Companies face special challenges when they market their products and services to people in other countries (and to people in their home countries who come from other cultures). Companies need to decide how to deal with situations in which the target culture’s ethical beliefs clash with those of their own culture. For instance, in many countries, sexual discrimination makes it difficult for women to assume responsible positions in the work- place. If a U.S. company that sells cell phones, for example, wishes to present product information in such a country, should it reinforce this discrimina- tion by excluding women from photographs of its products? Ethicist Thomas Donaldson argues that doing so is wrong (1991). According to the principle he calls the moral minimum, companies are ethically obligated not to reinforce patterns of discrimination in product information.

However, Donaldson argues, companies are not obligated to challenge the prevailing prejudice directly. A company is not obligated, for example, to include photographs that show women performing roles they do not normally perform within a particular culture, nor is it obligated to portray women wearing clothing, makeup, or jewelry that is likely to offend local standards. But there is nothing to prevent an organization from adopting a more activist stance. Organizations that actively oppose discrimination are acting admirably.

COMMUnICATIng In COUnTRIES WITh DIffEREnT LAWS

When U.S. companies export goods and services to other countries, they need to adhere to those countries’ federal and regional laws. For instance, a company that wishes to export to Montreal must abide by the laws of Quebec Province and of Canada. A company that wishes to export to Germany must abide by the laws of Germany and of the European Union, of which it is a part. In many cases, the target region will not allow the importation of goods and services that do not conform to local laws. The hazardous-product laws of the European Union, in particular, are typically more stringent than those of the United States.

Because exporting goods to countries with different laws is such a com- plex topic, companies that export devote considerable resources to finding out what they need to do, not only in designing and manufacturing products but also in writing the product information. For a good introduction to this topic, see Lipus (2006).

principles for Ethical communication

Although it is impossible to state principles for ethical communication that will guide you through all the challenges you will face communicating in the workplace, the following ten principles provide a starting point.

ABIDE BY RELEvAnT LAWS

You must adhere to the laws governing intellectual property. Here are some examples:

• do not violate copyright. When you want to publish someone else’s copyrighted material, such as graphics you find on the Web, get written permission from the copyright owner.

• honor the laws regarding trademarks. For instance, use the trademark symbol (TM) and the registered trademark symbol (®) properly.

• live up to the express and implied warranties on your company’s products.

• abide by all laws governing product liability. Helyar’s (1992) guidelines, presented on page 29, are a good introduction for products to be sold in the United States. Lipus’s (2006) guidelines are useful for products to be sold outside the United States.

ABIDE BY ThE APPROPRIATE PROfESSIOnAL CODE Of COnDUCT

Your field’s professional organization, such as the American Society of Civil Engineers, is likely to have a code that goes beyond legal issues to express ethical principles, such as telling the truth, reporting information accurately, respecting the privacy of others, and avoiding conflicts of interest.

ABIDE BY YOUR ORgAnIzATIOn’S POLICY On SOCIAL MEDIA

If your employer has a written policy about how employees may use social media, study it. If there is no written policy, check with Human Resources or your supervisor for advice. If you think that you will be unable to abide by the employer’s policy—whether written or not—you should not work there or you should abide by it while you try to change it.

TAkE ADvAnTAgE Of YOUR EMPLOYER’S EThICS RESOURCES

Your employer is likely to have a code of conduct, as well as other resources, such as an Ethics Office, which can help you find information to guide you in resolving ethical challenges you encounter. Your employer will likely have a mechanism for registering complaints about unethical con- duct anonymously.

TELL ThE TRUTh

Sometimes, employees are asked to lie about their companies’ products or about those of their competitors. Obviously, lying is unethical. Your responsi- bility is to resist this pressure, going over your supervisor’s head if necessary.

DOn’T MISLEAD YOUR READERS

A misleading statement—one that invites or even encourages the reader to reach a false conclusion—is ethically no better than lying. Avoid these four common kinds of misleading technical communication:

• false implications. If, as an employee of SuperBright, you write “Use only SuperBright batteries in your new flashlight,” you imply that only that brand will work. If that is untrue, the statement is misleading. Communicators sometimes use clichés such as user-friendly, ergonomic, and state-of-the-art to make a product sound better than it is; use specific, accurate information to back up your claims about a product.

• Exaggerations. If you say “Our new Operating System 2500 makes system crashes a thing of the past” when the product only makes them less likely, you are exaggerating. Provide specific technical information on the reduction of crashes. Similarly, do not write “We carried out extensive market research” if all you did was make a few phone calls.

• legalistic constructions. It is unethical to write “The 3000X was designed to operate in extreme temperatures, from –40 degrees to 120 degrees Fahrenheit” if the product does not operate reliably in those temperatures. Although the statement might technically be accurate—the product was designed to operate in those temperatures—it is misleading.

• Euphemisms. If you refer to someone’s being fired, say released, not granted permanent leave or offered an alternative career opportunity.

USE DESIgn TO hIghLIghT IMPORTAnT EThICAL AnD LEgAL InfORMATIOn Courts have found that burying information in footnotes or printing it in very small type violates a company’s obligation to inform consumers and warn them about hazards in using a product. When you want to communicate safety information or other facts that readers need to know, use design features to make that information easy to see and understand. Figure 2.3 shows how design principles can be used to communicate nutritional information on food labels.

BE CLEAR

Clear writing helps your readers understand your message easily. Your responsibility is to write as clearly as you can to help your audience under- stand what you are saying. For instance, if you are writing a product war- ranty, make it as simple and straightforward as possible. Don’t hide behind big words and complicated sentences. Use tables of contents, indexes, and other accessing devices to help your readers find what they need.

AvOID DISCRIMInATORY LAngUAgE

Don’t use language that discriminates against people because of their sex, religion, ethnicity, race, sexual orientation, or physical or mental abilities. Employees have been disciplined or fired for sending inappropriate jokes through the company email system.

ACknOWLEDgE ASSISTAnCE fROM OThERS

Don’t suggest that you did all the work yourself if you didn’t. Cite your sources and your collaborators accurately and graciously. For more about cit- ing sources, see Appendix, Part B, page 614.

Chapter 3

Markel, M. (2015). Technical communication (11th ed.).  Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin’s.

CHAPTER 3

THIS CHAPTER PRESENTS a writing process that focuses on the techniques and tools most useful for technical writers. should you use the process described here? if you don’t already have a process that works for you, yes. But your goal should be to devise a process that enables you to write effective documents (that is, documents that accomplish your purpose) efficiently (without taking more time than necessary). at the end of this chapter, you will find a Writer’s Checklist. after you try implementing some of the techniques described in this chapter, you can start to revise the Writer’s Checklist to reflect the techniques that you find most effective.

The writing process consists of five steps: planning, drafting, revising, editing, and proofreading. The frustrating part of writing, however, is that these five steps are not linear. That is, you don’t plan the document, then check off a box and go on to drafting. at any step, you might double back to do more planning, drafting, or revising. even when you think you’re almost done—when you’re proofreading—you still might think of something that would improve the document. That means you’ll need to go back and rethink all five steps.

as you backtrack, you will have one eye on the clock, because the deadline is sneaking up on you. That’s the way it is for all writers. a technical writer stops working on a user manual because she has to get it off to the print shop. an engineer stops working on a set of slides for a conference presentation because it’s time to head for the airport. so, when you read about how to write, remember that you are reading about a messy process that goes backward as often as it goes forward and that, most likely, ends only when you run out of time.

remember, too, that many of the documents you produce will never truly be “finished.” Many types of documents that live online are called living documents because they are meant to be revised as new information becomes available or policies change. Benefits manuals, for example, keep changing.

Planning

Planning, which can take more than a third of the total time spent on a writing project, is critically important for every document, from an email message to a book-length manual. Start by thinking about your audience, because you need to understand whom you are writing to before you can figure out what you need to say about your subject.

analyzing youR auDiEnCE

If you are lucky, you can talk with your audience before and during your work on the document. These conversations can help you learn what your readers already know, what they want to know, and how they would like the informa- tion presented. You can test out drafts, making changes as you go.

Even if you cannot consult your audience while writing the document, you still need to learn everything you can about your readers so that you can deter- mine the best scope, organization, and style for your document. Then, for each of your most important readers, try to answer the following three questions:

• Who is your reader? Consider such factors as education, job experience and responsibilities, skill in reading English, cultural characteristics, and personal preferences.

• What are your reader’s attitudes and expectations? Consider the reader’s attitudes toward the topic and your message, as well as the reader’s expectations about the kind of document you will be presenting.

• Why and how will the reader use your document? Think about what readers will do with the document. This includes the physical environment in which they will use it, the techniques they will use in reading it, and the tasks they will carry out after they finish reading it.

analyzing youR PuRPosE

You cannot start to write until you can state the purpose (or purposes) of the document. Ask yourself these two questions:

• After your readers have read your document, what do you want them to know or do?

• What beliefs or attitudes do you want them to hold?

A statement of purpose might be as simple as this: “The purpose of this report is to recommend whether the company should adopt a health- promotion program.” Although the statement of purpose might not appear in this form in the final document, you want to state it clearly now to help you stay on track as you carry out the remaining steps.

Choosing youR WRiting tools

Writers have more tools available to them than ever before. You probably do most of your writing with commercial software such as Microsoft Office or open- source software such as Open Office, and you will likely continue to do much of your writing with these tools. Because of the rapid increase in the number and type of composition tools, however, knowing your options and choosing the one that best meets your needs can help you create a stronger document.

If you travel often or if many people in different locations will collaborate on a given document, you may find it useful to work with a cloud-based tool such as Google Drive. Specialized tools built for professional writers can be particularly useful for long, complicated projects that require heavy research;

Scrivener, for example, lets you gather your research data in a single location and easily reorganize your document at the section or chapter level. Compo- sition programs optimized for tablets, such as WritePad, convert handwriting into text, translate text into a number of languages, and feature cloud-based storage. Before you begin a big project, consider which type of writing tool will best meet your project’s needs.

gEnERating iDEas about youR subjECt

Generating ideas is a way to start mapping out the information you will need to include in the document, deciding where to put it, and identifying addi- tional information that may be required.

First, find out what you already know about the topic by using any of the techniques shown in Table 3.1.

TA b l E 3 . 1 techniques for generating ideas About your topic

tEChniquE

ExPlanation

ExaMPlE

asking the six journalistic questions

Brainstorming

Freewriting

Talking with someone

asking who, what, when, where, why, and how can help you figure out how much more research you need to do. note that you can generate several questions from each of these six words.

spending 15 minutes listing short phrases and questions about your subject helps you think of related ideas. later, when you construct an outline, you will rearrange your list, add new ideas, and toss out some old ones.

Writing without plans or restrictions, without stopping, can help you determine what you do and do not understand. and one phrase or sentence might spark an important idea.

discussing your topic can help you find out what you already know about it and generate new ideas. simply have someone ask you questions as you speak. soon you will find yourself in a conversation that will help you make new connections from one idea to another.

• Who would be able to participate?

• Who would administer it?

• What would the program consist of?

• Why we need a program

• Lower insurance rates • On-site or at a club?

• Who pays for it?

• What is our liability?

• Increase our productivity

a big trend today in business is sponsored health- promotion programs. Why should we do it? Many reasons, including boosting productivity and lowering our insurance premiums. But it’s complicated. one problem is that we can actually increase our risk if a person gets hurt. another is the need to decide whether to have the program—what exactly is the program? . . .

you: one reason we might want to do this is to boost productivity.

Bob: What exactly are the statistics on increased productivity? and who has done the studies? are they reputable?

you: Good point. i’m going to have to show that putting money into a program is going to pay off. i need to see whether there are unbiased recent sources that present hard data.

REsEaRChing aDDitional infoRMation

Once you have a good idea of what you already know about your topic, you must obtain the rest of the information you will need. You can find and evaluate what other people have already written by reading reference books, scholarly books, articles, websites, and reputable blogs and discus- sion boards. In addition, you might compile new information by interview- ing experts, distributing surveys and questionnaires, making observations, sending inquiries, and conducting experiments. Don’t forget to ask questions and gather opinions from your own network of associates, both inside and outside your organization.

oRganizing anD outlining youR DoCuMEnt

Although each document has its own requirements, you can use existing organizational patterns or adapt them to your own situation. For instance, the compare-and-contrast pattern might be an effective way to organize a discus- sion of different health-promotion programs. The cause-and-effect pattern might work well for a discussion of the effects of implementing such a program.

At this point, your organization is only tentative. When you start to draft, you might find that the pattern you chose isn’t working well or that you need additional information that doesn’t fit into the pattern.

Once you have a tentative plan, write an outline to help you stay on track as you draft. To keep your purpose clearly in mind as you work, you may want to write it at the top of your page before you begin your outline.

sElECting an aPPliCation, a DEsign, anD a DElivERy MEthoD

Once you have a sense of what you want to say, you need to select an appli- cation (the type of document), a design, and a delivery method. You have a number of decisions to make:

• is the application already chosen for me? If you are writing a proposal to submit to the U.S. Department of the Interior, for example, you must follow the department’s specifications for what the proposal is to look like and how it is to be delivered. For most kinds of communication, however, you will likely have to select the appropriate application, such as a set of instructions or a manual. Sometimes, you will deliver an oral presentation or participate in a phone conference or a videoconference.

• What will my readers expect? If your readers expect a written set of instructions, you should present a set of instructions unless some other application, such as a report or a manual, is more appropriate. If they expect to see the instructions presented in a simple black-and-white booklet—and there is no good reason to design something more elaborate than that—your choice is obvious. For instance, instructions for installing and operating a ceiling fan in a house are generally presented in a small, inexpensive booklet with the pages stapled together or on a large, folded sheet of paper. However, for an expensive home-theater system, readers might expect a glossy, full-color manual.

• What delivery method will work best? Related to the question of reader expectations is the question of how you will deliver the document to your readers. For instance, you would likely mail an annual report to your readers and upload it to your company website. You might present industry forecasts on a personal blog or on one sponsored by your employer. You might deliver a user manual for a new type of photo-editing program online rather than in print because the program—and therefore the manual—will change.

It is important to think about these questions during the planning process, because your answers will largely determine the scope, organization, style, and design of the information you will prepare. As early as the planning step, you need to imagine your readers using your information.

DEvising a sChEDulE anD a buDgEt

During the planning stage, you also must decide when you will need to provide the information and how much you can spend on the project. For instance, for the project on health-promotion programs, your readers might need a report to help them decide what to do before the new fiscal year begins in two months. In addition, your readers might want a progress report submitted halfway through the project. Making a schedule is often a collaborative process: you meet with your main readers, who tell you when they need the information, and you estimate how long the different tasks will take.

You also need to create a budget. In addition to the time you will need to do the project, you need to think about expenses you might incur. For example, you might need to travel to visit companies with different kinds of health-promotion programs. You might need to conduct specialized data- base searches, create and distribute questionnaires to employees, or conduct interviews at remote locations. Some projects call for usability testing—evalu- ating the experiences of prospective users as they try out a system or a docu- ment. The cost of this testing needs to be included in your budget.

drafting

When you have at least a preliminary outline, it is time to start drafting. Some writers like to draft within the outline created on their word-processing pro- gram. Others prefer to place a paper copy of their outline on the desk next to their keyboard and begin drafting a new document that follows that outline.

using tEMPlatEs

For your draft, you might consider using an existing template or modify- ing one to meet your needs. Templates are preformatted designs for differ- ent types of documents, such as letters, memos, newsletters, and reports. Templates incorporate the design specifications for the document, including typeface, type size, margins, and spacing. Once you have selected a template, you just type in the information.

Using templates, however, can lead to three problems:

• they do not always reflect the best design principles. For instance, most letter and memo templates default to 10-point type, even though 12-point type is easier to read.

• they bore readers. Readers get tired of seeing the same designs.

• they cannot help you answer the important questions about your document. Although templates can help you format information, they cannot help you figure out how to organize and write a document. Sometimes, templates can even send you the wrong message. For example, résumé templates in word processors present a set of headings that might work better for some job applicants than for others.

In addition, the more you rely on existing templates, the less likely you are to learn how to use the software to make your documents look professional.

Drafting Effectively

Try the following techniques when you begin to draft or when you get stuck in the middle of drafting.

get comfortable. Choose a good chair, set at the right height for the keyboard, and adjust the light so that it doesn’t reflect off the screen.

start with the easiest topics. instead of starting at the beginning of the docu- ment, begin with the section you most want to write.

draft quickly. Try to make your fingers keep up with your brain. Turn the phrases from your outline into paragraphs. you’ll revise later.

don’t stop to get more information or to revise. set a timer, and draft for an hour or two without stopping. When you come to an item that requires more research, skip to the next item. don’t worry about sentence structure or spelling.

try invisible writing. darken the screen or turn off the monitor so that you can look only at your hard-copy outline or the keyboard. That way, you won’t be tempted to stop typing to revise what you have just written.

stop in the middle of a section. When you stop, do so in the middle of a paragraph or even in the middle of a sentence. you will find it easy to conclude the idea you were working on when you begin writing again. This technique will help you avoid writer’s block, the mental paralysis that can set in when you stare at a blank screen.

using stylEs

Styles are like small templates that apply to the design of smaller elements, such as headings. Like templates, styles save you time. For example, as you draft your document, you don’t need to add all the formatting each time you want to designate an item as a first-level heading. You simply highlight the text you want to be a first-level heading and use a pull-down menu or ribbon at the top of your screen to select that style. The text automatically incorpo- rates all the specifications of that style.

If you decide to modify a style—by italicizing a heading, for instance— you need to change it only once; the software automatically changes every instance of that style in the document. In collaborative documents, styles make it easier for collaborators to achieve a consistent look.

revising

Revising is the process of looking again at your draft to see whether it works. After you revise, you will carry out two more steps—editing and proofread- ing—but at this point you want to focus on three large topics:

• Audience. Has your understanding of your audience changed? Will you be addressing people you hadn’t considered before? If so, how will that change what you should say and how you should say it?

• Purpose. Has your understanding of your purpose changed? If so, what changes should you make to the document?

• subject. Has your understanding of the subject changed? Should you change the scope—that is, should you address more or fewer topics? Should you change the organization of the document? Should you present more evidence or different types of evidence?

On the basis of a new look at your audience, purpose, and subject, you might decide that you need to make minor changes, such as adding one or two minor topics. Or you might decide that you need to completely rethink the document.

There are two major ways to revise: by yourself and with the assistance of others. If possible, use both ways.

stuDying thE DRaft by youRsElf

The first step in revising is to read and reread your document, looking for different things each time. For instance, you might read it once just to see whether the information you have presented is appropriate for the various audiences you have identified. You might read it another time to see whether each of your claims is supported by appropriate and sufficient evidence.

Start with the largest, most important problems first; then work on the smaller, less important ones. That way, you don’t waste time on awkward paragraphs you might eventually decide to delete. Begin by reviewing the document as a whole (for organization, development, and content), saving the sentence-level concerns (such as grammar, punctuation, and spelling) for later.

One effective way to review your whole document for coherence is to study the outline view of the document. Figure 3.1 shows how the outline view helps you see how the document is organized.

After you have studied your draft to see if there are problems with its organization, study it to answer six additional questions:

• Have I left out anything in turning my outline into a draft?

• Have I included all the elements my readers expect to see?

• Is the document persuasive?

• Do I come across as reliable, honest, and helpful?

• Have I presented all the elements consistently?

• Is the emphasis appropriate throughout the document?

sEEking hElP fRoM othERs

For technical documents, it is best to turn to two kinds of people for help. Subject-matter experts (SMEs) can help you determine whether your facts and explanations are accurate and appropriate. If, for instance, you are writing about fuel-cell automobiles, you could ask an automotive expert to review your document. Important documents are routinely reviewed by tech- nical experts before being released to the public.

The second category of reviewers includes both actual users of your exist- ing document and prospective users of the next version of the document. These people can help you see problems you or other knowledgeable read- ers don’t notice. For instance, a prospective user of a document on fuel-cell technologies might point out that she doesn’t understand what a fuel cell is because you haven’t defined the term.

How do you learn from SMEs and from users and prospective users? Here are a few techniques:

• surveying, interviewing, or observing readers as they use the existing document

• interviewing SMEs about a draft of the document

• conducting focus groups to learn users’ or prospective users’ opinions about an existing or proposed document

• uploading the document to an online writing space, such as Microsoft SharePoint or Google Drive, and authorizing people to revise it

It is important to revise all drafts, but it is especially important to revise drafts of documents that will be read and used by people from other cultures. If your readers come from another culture, try to have your draft reviewed by someone from that culture. That reviewer can help you see whether you have made correct assumptions about how readers will react to your ideas and whether you have chosen appropriate kinds of evidence and design elements. As discussed in Chapters 11 and 12, people from other cultures might be sur- prised by some design elements used in reports, such as marginal comments.

ETHICS NOTE

aCknoWlEDging REviEWERs REsPonsibly

When you write on the job, take advantage of the expertise of others. it is completely ethical to ask subject-matter experts and people who are similar to the intended audience of your document to critique a draft of it. if your reviewer offers detailed comments and suggestions on the draft or sends you a multipage review—and you use some or many of the ideas—you are ethically bound to acknowledge that person’s contributions. This acknowledgment can take the form of a one- or two-sentence statement of appreciation in the introduction of the document or in a transmittal letter. or you could write a letter or memo of appreciation to the reviewer; he or she can then file it and use it for a future performance evaluation.

editing

Having revised your draft and made changes to its content and organiza- tion, it’s time for you to edit. Editing is the process of checking the draft to improve its grammar, punctuation, style, usage, diction (word choice), and mechanics (such as use of numbers and abbreviations). You will do most of the editing by yourself, but you might also ask others for assistance, espe- cially writers and editors in your organization. One technology that enables people at different locations to work together is a wiki, a website that lets authorized readers edit a document (also referred to as a wiki) and archives all the previous versions of the document.

The resources devoted to editing will vary depending on the importance of the document. An annual report, which is perhaps the single most important document that people will read about your organization, will be edited rigor- ously because the company wants it to look perfect. A biweekly employee newsletter also will be edited, but not as rigorously as an annual report. What about the routine emails you write every day? Edit them, too. It’s rude not to.

Proofreading

Proofreading is the process of checking to make sure you have typed what you meant to type. The following sentence contains three errors that you should catch in proofreading:

There are for major reasons we should implementing health-promotion program.

Here they are:

1. “For” is the wrong word. It should be “four.”

2. “Implementing” is the wrong verb form. It should be “implement.” This mistake is probably left over from an earlier version of the sentence.

3. The article “a” is missing before the phrase “health-promotion program.” This is probably just a result of carelessness.

By the way, a spell-checker and grammar-checker didn’t flag any of these errors. Although some writers can proofread effectively on the screen, othersprefer to print a copy of the text. These writers say that because the text looks different on the page than it does on the screen, they are more likely to approach it with fresh eyes, as their eventual readers will, and therefore more likely to see errors.

Regardless of whether you proofread on screen or on paper, the process is no fun. You’re exhausted, you’re thoroughly sick of the document, and proofreading is not the most exciting thing you have ever done. But it is vital to producing a clear, well-written document that reflects your high standards and underscores your credibility as a professional. Don’t insult yourself and your readers by skipping this step. Reread your draft carefully and slowly, perhaps out loud, and get a friend to help. You’ll be surprised at how many errors you’ll find.

Writer’s CheCklist

In planning the document, did you analyze your audience? (p. 43)

analyze your purpose? (p. 43)

generate ideas about your subject? (p. 44)

research additional information? (p. 45)

organize and outline your document? (p. 46)

select an application, a design, and a delivery method?

(p. 47) devise a schedule and a budget? (p. 47)

In drafting the document, did you use templates, if appropriate? (p. 48) use styles? (p. 51)

In revising the draft, did you study the draft by yourself? (p. 52) seek help from others? (p. 53)

Did you edit the document carefully? (p. 54) Did you proofread the document carefully? (p. 54)

SCORE A+ WITH HELP FROM OUR PROFESSIONAL WRITERS – Proposal for Final Project – Recommendation Report

Chapter 5

Markel, M. (2015). Technical communication (11th ed.).  Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin’s.

CHAPTER 5

JASON FALLS, THE DIGITAL STRATEGIST for the online retailer CaféPress, writes frequently about how companies can use social media to create relationships with customers. what does he say is the key to using social media for business? Knowing your audience. in a 2013 blog post, Falls wrote about some of the electronic services that can help companies figure out who their customers are so that they can better appeal to their interests. one of the services he discussed is demographicsPro, which supplies information about your twitter followers. Figure 5.1 shows part of the report that demographicsPro supplied to Falls about his twitter followers.

organizations of all sorts, not just businesses, analyze their audiences. Government agencies that want to appeal to the general public—to urge them to eat better, get vaccinated, or sign up for health insurance, to name just a few campaigns—start by analyzing their audiences to learn how to motivate them. Political campaigns analyze voters to determine the issues they want to see addressed. Charities such as the March of dimes analyze their audiences to improve the effectiveness of their communications.

understanding Audience and purpose

Projects and campaigns of all sizes and types succeed only if they are based on an accurate understanding of the needs and desires of their audiences and have a clear, focused purpose. Because the documents and other com- munication you produce in the workplace will, more often than not, form the foundations of these projects and campaigns, they too will succeed only if they are based on an accurate understanding of your audience and have a clear purpose.

Although you might not realize it, you probably consider audience in your day-to-day communication. For example, when you tell your parents about a new job you’ve landed, you keep the discussion general and focus on the job details you know they care most about: its location, its salary and ben- efits, and your start date. But when you email a former internship supervisor with the same news, you discuss your upcoming duties and projects in more detail.

As you produce documents for this technical-communication course, you will of course consider your instructor’s expectations, just as you do when you write anything for any other course. But keep in mind that your instruc- tor in this course is also playing the role of the audience that you would be addressing if you had produced the document outside of this college course. Therefore, to a large extent your instructor will likely evaluate each of your course assignments on how effectively you’ve addressed the audience and achieved the purpose specified in the assignment.

Analyzing an audience means thinking about who your audience is, what they already know about your subject, how they feel about it, and how they are going to use the information you present. You analyze your audience as you plan your document so that it appeals to their interests and needs, is easy for them to understand, and motivates them to pay attention to your message and consider your recommendations.

The word purpose refers to what you want to accomplish with the docu- ment you are producing. Most often, your purpose is to explain to your audience how something occurs (how regenerative braking systems work in hybrid cars), how to carry out a task (how to set up a Skype connection), or why some situation is either good or bad (why the new county guidelines for water use will help or hurt your company). When your purpose is to explain why a situation is either good or bad, you are trying to reinforce or change the audience’s attitudes toward the situation and perhaps urge them to take action.

Before you can start to think about writing about your subject, analyze your audience and purpose. Doing so will help you meet your readers’ needs—and your own. For instance, you’re an engineer working for a consulting company. One document to which you might contribute is a report to the city planning board about how building a housing development would affect the natural environment as well as the city’s roads, schools, and sanitation infrastructure. That’s the subject of the report. The purpose is to motivate the planning board to approve the project so that it can begin. How does the audience affect how you analyze your purpose? You think about who the board members are. If most of them are not engineers, you don’t want to use specialized vocabulary and advanced engineering graphics and concepts. You don’t want to dwell on the technical details. Rather, you want to use general vocabulary, graphics, and concepts. You want to focus on the issues the board members are concerned about. Would the development affect the environment negatively? If so, is the developer including a plan to offset that negative effect? Can the roads handle the extra traffic? Can the schools handle the extra kids? Will the city have to expand its police force? Its fire department? Its sewer system?

In other words, when you write to the planning board, you focus on topics they are most interested in, and you write the document so that it is easy for them to read and understand. If the project is approved and you need to communicate with other audiences, such as architects and contractors, you will have different purposes, and you will adjust your writing to meet each audience’s needs.

What can go wrong when you don’t analyze your audience? McDonald’s Corporation found out when it printed takeout bags decorated with flags from around the world. Among them was the flag of Saudi Arabia, which contains scripture from the Koran. This was extremely offensive to Muslims, who consider it sacrilegious to throw out items bearing sacred scripture. As a result, McDonald’s lost public credibility.

Throughout this chapter, the text will refer to your reader and your docu- ment. But all of the information refers as well to oral presentations, which are the subject of Chapter 21, as well as to nonprint documents, such as podcasts or videos.

using an Audience profile sheet

As you read the discussions in this chapter about audience characteristics and techniques for learning about your audience, you might think about using an audience profile sheet: a form that prompts you to consider various audience characteristics as you plan your document. For example, the profile sheet can help you realize that you do not know much about your primary reader’s work history and what that history can tell you about how to shape your document. Figure 5.2 shows an audience profile sheet that provides important information about one of a writer’s most important readers.

ANALYZING YOUR AUDIeNCe AND PURPOSe

86

FIGuRE 5.2

An Audience

Profile Sheet

Assume that you work in the draft- ing department of an architectural engineering firm. You know that the company’s computer-assisted design (CAD) software is out of date and that recent CAD technology would make it easier and faster for the draftspeople to do their work. You want to persuade your company to authorize buying a CAD workstation that costs about $4,000. To do so, you fill out an audi- ence profile sheet for your primary reader, Harry Becker, the manager of your company’s Drafting and Design Department.

You should modify this form to meet your own needs and those of your organization.

AUDIeNCe PROFILe SHeeT

Reader’s Name: harry becker Reader’s Job Title: Manager, drafting and design department

X

kind of Reader: Primary _____ Secondary _____

education: bS, architectural engineering, northwestern, 1992. Cad/CaM Short Course, 1992; Motivating your employees Seminar, 1997; writing on the Job Short Course, 2002

Professional experience: worked for two years in a small architecture firm. Started here 16 years ago as a draftsperson. worked his way up to assistant Manager, then Manager. instrumental in the wilson project, particularly in coordinating personnel and equipment.

Job Responsibilities: Supervises a staff of 12 draftspeople. approves or denies all requests for capital expenditures over $2,000 coming from his department. works with employees to help them make the best case for the purchase. after approving or denying the request, forwards it to tina buterbaugh, Manager, Finance dept., who maintains all capital expenditure records.

Personal Characteristics: n/a Personal Preferences: likes straightforward documents, lots of evidence, clear

structure. dislikes complicated documents full of jargon.

Cultural Characteristics: nothing of note.

Attitude Toward the Writer: no problems.

Attitude Toward the Subject: he understands and approves of my argument.

expectations About the Subject: expects to see a clear argument with financial data and detailed comparisons of available systems.

expectations About the Document: expects to see a report, with an executive summary, of about 10 pages.

Reasons for Reading the Document: to offer suggestions and eventually approve or deny the request.

Way of Reading the Document:

Skim it ____ Study it __X__ Read a portion of it ____ which portion? Modify it and submit it to another reader ____ attempt to implement recommendations ____ use it to perform a task or carry out a procedure ____

use it to create another document ____

other ____ explain. Reading Skill: excellent Reader’s Physical environment: n/a

If your document has several readers, you must decide whether to fill out only one sheet (for your most important reader) or several sheets. One tech- nique is to fill out sheets for one or two of your most important readers and one for each major category of other readers. For instance, you could fill out one sheet for your primary reader, Harry Becker; one for managers in other areas of your company; and one for readers from outside your company.

When do you fill out an audience profile sheet? Although some writers like to do so at the start of the process as a way to prompt themselves to consider audience characteristics, others prefer to do so at the end of the process as a way to help themselves summarize what they have learned about their audi- ence. Of course, you can start to fill out the sheet before you begin and then complete it or revise it at the end.

determining the Important characteristics of Your Audience

When you analyze the members of your audience, you are trying to learn what you can about their technical background and knowledge, their reasons for reading or listening to you, their attitudes and expectations, and how they will use the information you provide.

WHO ARe YOUR ReADeRS?

For each of your most important readers, consider six factors:

• the reader’s education. Think not only about the person’s degree but also about when the person earned the degree. A civil engineer who earned a BS in 1995 has a much different background than a person who earned the same degree in 2015. Also consider any formal education or training the person completed while on the job.

Knowing your reader’s educational background helps you determine how much supporting material to provide, what level of vocabulary to use, what kind of sentence structure to use, what types of graphics to include, how long your document should be, and whether to provide such elements as a glossary or an executive summary.

• the reader’s professional experience. A nurse with a decade of experience might have represented her hospital on a community committee to encourage citizens to give blood and might have contributed to the planning for the hospital’s new delivery room. These experiences would have provided several areas of competence or expertise that you should consider as you plan your document.

• the reader’s job responsibility. Consider the major job responsibility of your reader and how your document will help that person accomplish it. For example, if you are writing a feasibility study on ways to cool the air for a new office building and you know that your reader, an upper-levelmanager, oversees operating expenses, you should explain how you are estimating future utility costs.

• the reader’s personal characteristics. The reader’s age might suggest how he or she will read and interpret your document. Because a senior manager at age 60 might know less about a current technology than a 30-year-old manager does, you might need to describe that technology in greater detail for the senior manager. Does your reader have any other personal characteristics, such as impaired vision, that affect the way you write and design your document?

• the reader’s personal preferences. One person might hate to see the first- person pronoun I in technical documents. Another might find the word interface distracting when the writer isn’t discussing computers. Does your reader prefer one type of application (such as blogs or memos) over another? Try to accommodate as many of your reader’s preferences as you can.

• the reader’s cultural characteristics. Understanding cultural characteristics can help you appeal to your reader’s interests and avoid confusing or offending him or her. As discussed later in this chapter (p. 95), cultural characteristics can affect virtually every aspect of a reader’s comprehension of a document and perception of the writer.

WHY IS YOUR AUDIeNCe ReADING YOUR DOCUMeNT?

For each of your most important readers, consider why he or she will read your document. Some writers find it helpful to classify readers into categories— such as primary, secondary, and tertiary—that identify each reader’s distance from the writer. Here are some common descriptions of these three categories of readers:

• A primary audience consists of people to whom the communication is directed; they may be inside or outside the writer’s own organization. For example, they might include the writer’s team members, who assisted in carrying out an analysis of a new server configuration for the IT department; the writer’s supervisor, who reads the analysis to decide whether to authorize its main recommendation to adopt the new configuration; and an executive, who reads it to determine how high a priority the server project should have on a list of projects to fund. If you were producing text or videos for the Hewlett-Packard website, your primary audience would include customers, vendors, and suppliers who visit the site.

• A secondary audience consists of people more distant from the writer who need to stay aware of developments in the organization but who will not directly act on or respond to the document. Examples include managers of other departments, who are not directly involved in the project but who need to be aware of its broad outlines, and representatives from the marketing and legal departments, who need to check that the document conforms to the company’s standards and practices and with relevant legal standards, such as antidiscrimination or intellectual-property laws. External readers who are part of a secondary audience might include readers of your white paper who are not interested in buying your product but who need to stay current with the new products in the field.

• A tertiary audience consists of people even further removed from the writer who might take an interest in the subject of the report. Examples include interest groups (such as environmental groups or other advocacy organizations); local, state, and federal government officials; and, if the report is made public, the general public. Even if the report is not intended to be distributed outside the organization, given today’s climate of information access and the ease with which documents can be distributed, chances are good that it will be made available to outsiders.

Regardless of whether you classify your readers using a scheme such as this, think hard about why the most important audience members will read your document. Don’t be content to list only one purpose. Your direct supervisor, for example, might have several purposes that you want to keep in mind:

• to learn what you have accomplished in the project

• to determine whether to approve any recommendations you present

• to determine whether to assign you to a follow-up team that will work on the next stage of the project

• to determine how to evaluate your job performance next month

You will use all of this information about your audience as you determine the ways it affects how you will write your document or plan your presentation. In the meantime, write the information down so that you can refer to it later.

WHAT ARe YOUR ReADeRS’ ATTITUDeS AND exPeCTATIONS?

In thinking about the attitudes and expectations of each of your most impor- tant readers, consider these three factors:

• Your reader’s attitude toward you. Most people will like you because you are hardworking, intelligent, and cooperative. Some won’t. If a reader’s animosity toward you is irrational or unrelated to the current project, try to earn that person’s respect and trust by meeting him or her on some neutral ground, perhaps by discussing other, less volatile projects or some shared interest, such as gardening, skiing, or science-fiction novels.

• Your reader’s attitude toward the subject. If possible, discuss the subject thoroughly with your primary readers to determine whether they are positive, neutral, or negative toward it. Here are some basic strategies for responding to different attitudes.

• Your reader’s expectations about the document. Think about how your readers expect to see the information treated in terms of scope, organizational pattern, and amount of detail. Consider, too, the application. If your reader expects to see the information presented as a memo, use a memo unless some other format would clearly work better.

HOW WILL YOUR ReADeRS USe YOUR DOCUMeNT?

In thinking about how your reader will use your document, consider the fol- lowing four factors:

• the way your reader will read your document. Will he or she

— file it?

— skim it?

— read only a portion of it?

— study it carefully?

— modify it and submit it to another reader?

— try to implement its recommendations?

— use it to perform a test or carry out a procedure?

— use it as a source document for another document?

If only 1 of your 15 readers will study the document for details such as specifications, you don’t want the other 14 people to have to wade through them. Therefore, put this information in an appendix. If you know that your reader wants to use your status report as raw material for a report to a higher-level reader, try to write it so that it can be reused with little rewriting. Use the reader’s own writing style and make sure the reader has access to the electronic file so that passages can be merged into the new document without needing to be retyped.

• Your reader’s reading skill. Consider whether you should be writing at all or whether it would be better to use another medium, such as a video, an oral presentation, or a podcast. If you decide to write, consider whether your reader can understand how to use the type of document you have selected, handle the level of detail you will present, and understand your graphics, sentence structure, and vocabulary.

• the physical environment in which your reader will read your document. Often, technical documents are formatted in a special way or constructed of special materials to improve their effectiveness. Documents used in poorly lit places might be printed in larger-than-normal type. If documents are to be used on ships, on aircraft, or in garages, where they might be exposed to wind, water, and grease, you might have to use special waterproof bindings, oil-resistant or laminated paper, color coding, and unusual-sized paper.

• the digital environment in which your reader will read your document. If you are writing a document that will be viewed online, consider the platforms on which it will be accessed. Will readers be viewing it on mobile devices? Desktop computers? Both? How can you design the document so that it is easy to access—easy to get to, to see, to navigate, and to use—in these environments?

techniques for learning About Your Audience

To learn about your audience, you figure out what you do and do not already know, interview people, read about them, and read documents they have written. Of course, you cannot perform extensive research about every pos- sible reader of every document you write, but you should learn what you can about your most important readers of your most important documents.

DeTeRMINING WHAT YOU ALReADY kNOW AbOUT YOUR AUDIeNCe Start by asking yourself what you already know about your most important readers: their demographics (such as age, education, and job responsibilities); their expectations and attitudes toward you and the subject; and the ways they will use your document. Then list the important factors you don’t know. That is where you will concentrate your energies. The audience profile sheet shown in Figure 5.2 (p. 86) can help you identify gaps in your knowledge about your readers.

INTeRvIeWING PeOPLe

For your most important readers, make a list of people who you think have known them and their work the longest or who are closest to them on the job. These people might include those who joined the organization at about the same time your readers did; people who work in the same department as your readers; and people at other organizations who have collaborated with your readers.

Prepare a few interview questions that are likely to elicit information about your readers and their preferences and needs. For instance, you are writing a proposal for a new project at work. You want to present return-on- investment calculations to show how long it will take the company to recoup what it invested, but you’re not sure how much detail to present because you don’t know whether an important primary reader has a background in this aspect of accounting. Several of this reader’s colleagues will know. Interview them in person, on the phone, or by email.

ReADING AbOUT YOUR AUDIeNCe ONLINe

If you are writing for people in your own organization, start your research there. If your primary reader is a high-level manager or executive, search the organization’s website or internal social network. Sections such as “About Us,” “About the Company,” and “Information for Investors” often contain a wealth of biographical information, as well as links to other sources.

In addition, use a search engine to look for information on the Internet. You are likely to find newspaper and magazine articles, industry directories, websites, and blog posts about your audience.

SeARCHING SOCIAL MeDIA FOR DOCUMeNTS YOUR AUDIeNCe HAS WRITTeN Documents your readers have written can tell you a lot about what they like to see with respect to design, level of detail, organization and development, style, and vocabulary. If your primary audience consists of those within your organization, start searching for documents they’ve produced within the company. Then broaden the search to the Internet.

Although some of your readers might have written books or articles, many or even most of them might be active users of social media, such as Face- book. Pay particular attention to LinkedIn, a networking site for professionals. LinkedIn profiles are particularly useful because they include a person’s current and former positions and education, as well as recommendations from other professionals. Figure 5.3 is an excerpt from the LinkedIn entry written by Mike Markley, a technical communicator at Aquent.

Markley begins his LinkedIn biography with these paragraphs:

Mike Markley serves as Managing director for aquent Studios, a professional services firm, and manages a team of technical communicators, designers, project managers, and account managers throughout the united States and india. Prior to joining aquent, he worked at Micron technology and lionbridge in multiple content development and management roles.

Mike holds a bachelor of Science degree in Communication from university of idaho and a Master of arts in technical Communication from boise State university, where he currently serves as an adjunct instructor of technical communication.

These two paragraphs suggest a couple of points about Markley’s credentials:

• He has an extensive background, not only in writing and editing but also in various levels of management. You can expect that he knows project management, budgeting, and human resources. He understands both how to make documents and how to lead teams that make documents.

• He has experience overseeing project teams in India. This experience gives him a broad perspective not only on how two very different cultures see the world but also on how to supervise people from other cultures so that they work effectively and efficiently.

In short, when you read Markley’s comments on LinkedIn, you get the clear impression that he is an experienced, versatile, and highly respected technical communicator.

A typical LinkedIn entry directs you to a person’s websites and blogs and to the LinkedIn groups to which the person belongs. You can also see the person’s connections (his or her personal network). And if you are a LinkedIn member, you can see whether you and the person share any connections.

In addition, the person you are researching might have a social-media account on which he or she posts about matters related to his or her job. Reading a person’s recent posts will give you a good idea of his or her job responsibilities and professionalism, as shown in Figure 5.4.

SCORE A+ WITH HELP FROM OUR PROFESSIONAL WRITERS – Proposal for Final Project – Recommendation Report

ANALYZING SOCIAL-MeDIA DATA

Private companies and public agencies alike analyze social media to better understand their audiences. Private companies use these data primarily to determine who their customers are, how they feel about various marketing messages, and how these messages influence their buying behavior. Public agencies use these data to help them refine their own messages.

For instance, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), a U.S. federal agency, analyzes social media to improve the quality and effective- ness of its public health information. The agency starts by classifying people into various categories by age (such as tweens, teens, baby boomers) and determining which media each group uses most. On the basis of these data, the agency designs and implements health campaigns on such topics as cancer screening, HIV/AIDS prevention and treatment, vaccines, and smok- ing cessation.

Then the CDC monitors social media to determine how many people are seeing the agency’s information, how they are engaging with the informa- tion (whether they share the information or follow links to other sites), and whether the information is changing their behavior (Centers for Disease Con- trol, 2013). Among the data the CDC analyzes each month are the following:

• the number of visitors to each of the CDC web pages

• the most popular keywords searched on CDC pages as well as on selected other sites and popular search engines such as Google

• the numbers of Facebook fans and Twitter followers • the number of click-throughs to CDC web pages from Facebook and Twitter

On the basis of these data, the CDC adjusts its social-media campaigns to use its campaign resources most effectively.

communicating Across cultures

Our society and our workforce are becoming increasingly diverse, both culturally and linguistically, and businesses are exporting more goods and services. As a result, professionals often communicate with individuals from different cultural backgrounds, many of whom are nonnative speakers of English, both in the United States and abroad, and with speakers of other languages who read texts translated from English into their own languages.

The economy of the United States depends on international trade. In 2010, according to the U.S. Census Bureau, the United States exported over $2.5 trillion of goods and services (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012, p. 792). In that year, direct investment abroad by U.S. companies totaled more than $4.4 trillion (p. 796). In addition, the population of the United States itself is truly multi- cultural. Each year, the United States admits more than a million immigrants (p. 46). In 2010, 12.5 percent of the U.S. population was foreign born; of those foreign born, almost a third had entered the country since 2000 (p. 43).

Effective communication requires an understanding of culture: the beliefs, attitudes, and values that motivate people’s behavior.

UNDeRSTANDING THe CULTURAL vARIAbLeS “ON THe SURFACe” Communicating effectively with people from another culture requires under- standing a number of cultural variables that lie on the surface. You need to know, first, what language or languages to use. You also need to be aware of political, social, religious, and economic factors that can affect how readers will interpret your documents. Understanding these factors is not an exact science, but it does require that you learn as much as you can about the cul- ture of those you are addressing.

A brief example: an American manufacturer of deodorant launched an advertising campaign in Japan in which a cute octopus applied the firm’s product under each of its eight arms. But the campaign failed because, in Japan, an octopus is viewed as having eight legs, not eight arms (Bathon, 1999).

In International Technical Communication, Nancy L. Hoft (1995) describes seven major categories of cultural variables that lie on the surface:

• political. This category relates to trade issues and legal issues (for example, some countries forbid imports of certain foods or chemicals) and laws about intellectual property, product safety, and liability.

• economic. A country’s level of economic development is a critical factor. In many developing countries, most people cannot afford devices for accessing the Internet.

• social. This category covers many issues, including gender and business customs. In most Western cultures, women play a much greater role in the workplace than they do in many Middle Eastern and Asian cultures. Business customs—including forms of greeting, business dress, and gift giving—vary from culture to culture.

• religious. Religious differences can affect diet, attitudes toward individual colors, styles of dress, holidays, and hours of business.

• educational. In the United States, 40 million people are only marginally literate. In other cultures, the rate can be much higher or much lower. In some cultures, classroom learning with a teacher is considered the most acceptable way to study; in others, people tend to study on their own.

• technological. If you sell high-tech products, you need to know whether your readers have the hardware, the software, and the technological infrastructure to use them.

• linguistic. In some countries, English is taught to all children starting in grade school; in other countries, English is seen as a threat to the national language. In many cultures, the orientation of text on a page and in a book is not from left to right.

In addition to these basic differences, you need to understand dozens of other factors. For instance, the United States is the only major country that has not adopted the metric system. Whereas Americans use periods to sepa- rate whole numbers from decimals, and commas to separate thousands from hundreds, much of the rest of the world reverses this usage.

united states 3,425.6

europe 3.425,6

Also, in the United States, the format for writing out and abbreviating dates is different from that of most other cultures:

united states March 2, 2015 3/2/15

europe March 2 2015 2/3/15

japan March 2 2015 15/3/2

 

These cultural variables are important in obvious ways: for example, you can’t send a file to a person who doesn’t have access to the Internet. However, there is another set of cultural characteristics—those beneath the surface—that you also need to understand.

SCORE A+ WITH HELP FROM OUR PROFESSIONAL WRITERS – Proposal for Final Project – Recommendation Report

UNDeRSTANDING THe CULTURAL vARIAbLeS “beNeATH THe SURFACe” Scholars of multicultural communication have identified cultural variables that are less obvious than those discussed in the previous section but just as important. Writing scholars Elizabeth Tebeaux and Linda Driskill (1999) explain five key variables and how they are reflected in technical communication.

• focus on individuals or groups. Some cultures, especially in the West, value individuals more than groups. The typical Western employee doesn’t see his or her identity as being defined by the organization for which he or she works. Other cultures, particularly those in Asia, value groups more than individuals. The typical employee in such cultures sees himself or herself more as a representative of the organization than as an individual who happens to work there.

Communication in individualistic cultures focuses on the writer’s and reader’s needs rather than on those of their organizations. Writers use the pronoun I rather than we. Letters are addressed to the principal reader and signed by the writer.

Communication in group-oriented cultures focuses on the organization’s needs by emphasizing the benefits to be gained through a cooperative relationship between organizations. Writers emphasize the relationship between the writer and the reader rather than the specific technical details of the message. Writers use we rather than I. They might address letters to “Dear Sir” and use their organization’s name, not their own, in the complimentary close.

• distance between business life and private life. In some cultures, especially in the West, many people separate their business lives from their private lives. When the workday ends, they are free to go home and spend their time as they wish. In other cultures, particularly in Asia, people see a much smaller distance between their business lives and their private lives. Even after the day ends, they still see themselves as employees of their organization.

Cultures that value individualism tend to see a great distance between business and personal lives. In these cultures, communication focuses on technical details, with relatively little reference to personal information about the writer or the reader.

Cultures that are group oriented tend to see a smaller distance between business life and private life. In these cultures, communication contains much more personal information—about the reader’s family and health— and more information about general topics—for example, the weather and the seasons. The goal is to build a formal relationship between the two organizations. Both the writer and the reader are, in effect, on call after business hours and are likely to transact business during long social activities such as elaborate dinners or golf games.

• distance between ranks. In some cultures, the distance in power and authority between workers within an organization is small. This small distance is reflected in a close working relationship between supervisors and their subordinates. In other cultures, the distance in power and authority between workers within an organization is great. Supervisors do not consult with their subordinates. Subordinates use formal names and titles—“Mr. Smith,” “Dr. Jones”—when addressing people of higher rank.

Individualistic cultures that separate business and private lives tend to have a smaller distance between ranks. In these cultures, communication is generally less formal. Informal documents (emails and memos) are appropriate, and writers often sign their documents with their first names only. Keep in mind, however, that many people in these cultures resent inappropriate informality, such as letters or emails addressed “Dear Jim” when they have never met the writer.

In cultures with a great distance between ranks, communication is generally formal. Writers tend to use their full professional titles and to prefer formal documents (such as letters) to informal ones (such as memos and emails). Writers make sure their documents are addressed to the appropriate person and contain the formal design elements (such as title pages and letters of transmittal) that signal their respect for their readers.

• need for details to be spelled out. Some cultures value full, complete communication. The written text must be comprehensive, containing all the information a reader needs to understand it. These cultures are called low-context cultures. Other cultures value documents in which some of the details are merely implied. This implicit information is communicated through other forms of communication that draw on the personal relationship between the reader and the writer, as well as social and business norms of the culture. These cultures are called high-context cultures.

Low-context cultures tend to be individualistic; high-context cultures tend to be group oriented. In low-context cultures, writers spell out all the details. Documents are like contracts in that they explain procedures in great detail and provide specific information that indicates the rights and responsibilities of both the writer and the readers. In high-context cultures, writers tend to omit information that they consider obvious because they don’t want to insult the reader. For example, a manual written for people in a high-context culture might not explain why a cell- phone battery needs to be charged because everyone already knows why.

• Attitudes toward uncertainty. In some cultures, people are comfortable with uncertainty. They communicate less formally and rely less on written policies. In many cases, they rely more on a clear set of guiding principles, as communicated in a code of conduct or a mission statement. In other cultures, people are uncomfortable with uncertainty.

Businesses are structured formally, and they use written procedures for communicating.

In cultures that tolerate uncertainty, written communication tends to be less detailed. Oral communication is used to convey more of the information that is vital to the relationship between the writer and the readers. In cultures that value certainty, communication tends to be detailed. Policies are lengthy and specific, and forms are used extensively. Roles are firmly defined, and there is a wide distance between ranks.

As you consider this set of cultural variables, keep four points in mind:

• each variable represents a spectrum of attitudes. Terms such as high-context and low-context, for instance, represent the opposite end points on a scale. Most cultures occupy a middle ground.

• the variables do not line up in a clear pattern. Although the variables sometimes correlate—for example, low-context cultures tend to be individualistic—in any one culture, the variables do not form a consistent pattern. For example, the dominant culture in the United States is highly individualistic rather than group oriented but only about midway along the scale in terms of tolerance of uncertainty.

• different organizations within the same culture can vary greatly. For example, one software company in Germany might have a management style that does not tolerate uncertainty, whereas another software company in that country might tolerate a lot of uncertainty.

• An organization’s cultural attitudes are fluid, not static. How an organization operates is determined not only by the dominant culture but also by its own people. As new people join an organization, its culture changes. The IBM of 1995 is not the IBM of 2015.

For you as a communicator, this set of variables therefore offers no answers. Instead, it offers a set of questions. You cannot know in advance the attitudes of the people in an organization. You have to interact with them for a long time before you can reach even tentative conclusions. The value of being aware of the variables is that they can help you study the communica- tion from people in that organization and become more aware of underlying values that affect how they will interpret your documents.

CONSIDeRING CULTURAL vARIAbLeS AS YOU WRITe

The challenge of communicating effectively with a person from another cul- ture is that you are communicating with a person, not a culture. You cannot be sure which cultures have influenced that person (Lovitt, 1999). For exam- ple, a 50-year-old Japanese-born manager at the computer manufacturer Fujitsu in Japan has been shaped by the Japanese culture, but he also has been influenced by the culture of his company and of the Japanese computer industry in general. Because he works on an export product, it is also likely that he has traveled extensively outside of Japan and has absorbed influ- ences from other cultures.

A further complication is that when you communicate with a person from another culture, to that person you are from another culture, and you cannot know how much that person is trying to accommodate your cultural patterns. As writing scholar Arthur H. Bell (1992) points out, the communication between the two of you is carried out in a third, hybrid culture. When you write to a large audience, the complications increase. A group of managers at Fujitsu represents a far more complex mix of cultural influences than one manager at Fujitsu.

No brief discussion of cultural variables can answer questions about how to write for a particular multicultural audience. You need to study your readers’ culture and, as you plan your document, seek assistance from someone native to the culture who can help you avoid blunders that might confuse or offend your readers.

Start by reading some of the basic guides to communicating with people from other cultures, and then study guides to the particular culture you are investigating. In addition, numerous sites on the Internet provide useful guidelines that can help you write to people from another culture. If possible, study documents written by people in your audience. If you don’t have access to these, try to locate documents written in English by people from the cul- ture you are interested in.

Writing for Readers from Other Cultures

the following eight suggestions will help you communicate more effectively with multicultural readers.

limit your vocabulary. every word should have only one meaning, as called for in Simplified english and in other basic-english languages.

Keep sentences short. there is no magic number, but try for an average sentence length of no more than 20 words.

define abbreviations and acronyms in a glossary. don’t assume that your read- ers know what a GFi (ground fault interrupter) is, because the abbreviation is derived from english vocabulary and word order.

Avoid jargon unless you know your readers are familiar with it. For instance, your readers might not know what a graphical user interface is.

Avoid idioms and slang. these terms are culture specific. if you tell your Japa- nese readers that your company plans to put on a “full-court press,” most likely they will be confused.

use the active voice whenever possible. the active voice is easier for nonnative speakers of english to understand than the passive voice.

be careful with graphics. the garbage-can icon on the Macintosh computer does not translate well, because garbage cans might have different shapes and be made of different materials in other countries.

be sure someone from the target culture reviews your document. even if you have had help in planning the document, have it reviewed before you publish and distribute it.

USING GRAPHICS AND DeSIGN FOR MULTICULTURAL ReADeRS One of the challenges of writing to people from another culture is that they are likely to be nonnative speakers of English. One way to overcome the language barrier is to use effective graphics and appropriate document design.

However, the most appropriate graphics and design can differ from culture to culture. Business letters written in Australia use a different size paper and a different format than those in the United States. An icon for a file folder in a software program created in the United States could confuse European readers, who use file folders of a different size and shape (Bosley, 1999). A series of graphics arranged left to right could confuse readers from the Middle East, who read from right to left. For this reason, you should study samples of documents written by people from the culture you are addressing to learn the important differences.

Applying What You have learned About Your Audience

You want to use what you know about your audience to tailor your commu- nication to their needs and preferences. Obviously, if your most important reader does not understand the details of DRAM technology, you cannot use the concepts, vocabulary, and types of graphics used in that field. If she uses one-page summaries at the beginning of her documents, decide whether they will work for your document. If your primary reader’s paragraphs always start with clear topic sentences, yours should, too.

The samples of technical communication shown in Figure 5.7 illustrate some of the ways writers have applied what they know about their audiences in text and graphics.

ETHIcS NOTE

MeeTING YOUR ReADeRS’ NeeDS ReSPONSIbLY

a major theme of this chapter is that effective technical communication meets your readers’ needs. what this theme means is that as you plan, draft, revise, and edit, you should always be thinking of who your readers are, why they will read your document, and how they will read the document. For example, if your readers include many nonnative speakers of english, you will adjust your vocabulary, sentence structure, and other textual elements so that readers can understand your document easily. if your readers will be accessing the document on a mobile device, you will ensure that the design is optimized for their screen

Meeting your readers’ needs does not mean writing a misleading or inaccurate document. if your readers want you to slant the information, omit crucial data, or downplay bad news, they are asking you to act unethically. you should not do so. For more information on ethics, see Chapter 2.

Writing for multiple Audiences

Many documents of more than a few pages are addressed to more than one reader. Often, an audience consists of people with widely different back- grounds, needs, and attitudes.

If you think your document will have a number of readers, consider mak- ing it modular: break it up into components addressed to different readers. A modular report might contain an executive summary for managers who don’t have the time, knowledge, or desire to read the whole report. It might also contain a full technical discussion for expert readers, an implementa- tion schedule for technicians, and a financial plan in an appendix for budget officers. Figure 5.8 shows the table of contents for a modular report.

determining Your purpose

Once you have identified and analyzed your audience, it is time to examine your purpose. Ask yourself this: “What do I want this document to accom- plish?” When your readers have finished reading what you have written, what do you want them to know or believe? What do you want them to do? Your writing should help your readers understand a concept, adopt a particu- lar belief, or carry out a task.

In defining your purpose, think of a verb that represents it. (Sometimes, of course, you have several purposes.) The following list presents verbs in two categories: those used to communicate information to your readers and those used to convince them to accept a particular point of view.

Communicating verbs

authorize define describe explain illustrate inform outline present review summarize

Convincing verbs

assess evaluate forecast propose recommend request

This classification is not absolute. For example, review could in some cases be a convincing verb rather than a communicating verb: one writer’s review of a complicated situation might be very different from another’s.

Here are a few examples of how you can use these verbs to clarify the pur- pose of your document (the verbs are italicized).

• This wiki presents the draft of our policies on professional use of social media within the organization.

• This letter authorizes the purchase of six new tablets for the Jenkintown facility.

• This report recommends that we revise the website as soon as possible.

Sometimes your real purpose differs from your expressed purpose. For instance, if you want to persuade your reader to lease a new computer system rather than purchase it, you might phrase the purpose this way: to explain the advantages of leasing over purchasing. As mentioned earlier, many readers don’t want to be persuaded but are willing to learn new facts or ideas.

In situations like this, stick to the facts. No matter how much you want to convince your readers, it is unacceptable to exaggerate or to omit important information. Trust that the strength and accuracy of your writing will enable you to achieve your intended purpose.

gaining management’s Approval

After you have analyzed your audience and purpose, consider gaining the approval of management before you proceed. The larger and more complex the project and the document, the more important it is to be sure that you are on the right track before you invest too much time and effort.

For example, suppose you are planning a proposal to upgrade your com- pany’s computer-assisted-design (CAD) equipment. You already know your audience and purpose, and you are drafting a general outline in your mind. But before you actually start to write an outline or gather the information you will need, spend another 10 or 15 minutes making sure your primary reader, your supervisor, agrees with your thinking by submitting to him a brief description of your plans. You don’t want to waste days or even weeks working on a document that won’t fulfill its purpose. If you have misunder- stood what your supervisor wants, it is far easier to fix the problem at this early stage.

Your description can also serve another purpose: if you want your reader’s views on which of two strategies to pursue, you can describe each one and ask your reader to state a preference.

Choose an application that is acceptable to your reader, and then clearly and briefly state what you are trying to do in the project. Here is an example of the description you might submit to your boss about the CAD equipment. In composing this description of her plan, the writer drew on audience profile sheets for her two principal readers. She describes a logical, rational strategy for proposing the equipment purchase.

Juan:

Please tell me if you think this is a good approach for the proposal on Cad equipment.

outright purchase of the complete system will cost more than $1,000, so you would have to approve it and send it on for tina’s approval. (i’ll provide leasing costs as well.) i want to show that our Cad hardware and software are badly out of date and need to be replaced. i’ll be thorough in recommending new equipment, with independent evaluations in the literature, as well as product demonstrations. the proposal should specify what the current equipment is costing us and show how much we can save by buying the recommended system.

i’ll call you later today to get your reaction before i begin researching what’s available. Renu

Once you have received your primary reader’s approval, you can feel confi- dent about starting to gather information.

revising Information for a new Audience and purpose

Chapter 2 introduced the concept of boilerplate information: standard text or graphics that are plugged into various documents published by your organi- zation (see p. 24). Often, however, when you write to a new audience or have a new purpose, you need to revise the information.

112

5

SCORE A+ WITH HELP FROM OUR PROFESSIONAL WRITERS – Proposal for Final Project – Recommendation Report

ANALYZING YOUR AUDIeNCe AND PURPOSe

WRITER’S cHEckLIST

Following is a checklist for analyzing your audience and purpose. Remember that your document might be read by one person, several people, a large group, or several groups with various needs.

Did you fill out an audience profile sheet for your primary and secondary audiences? (p. 85)

In analyzing your audience, did you consider the following questions about each of your most important readers:

What is your reader’s educational background? (p. 87)

What is your reader’s professional experience? (p. 87)

What is your reader’s job responsibility? (p. 87)

What are your reader’s personal characteristics? (p. 88)

What are your reader’s personal preferences? (p. 88)

What are your reader’s cultural characteristics? (p. 88)

Why will the reader read your document? (p. 88)

What is your reader’s attitude toward you? (p. 89)

What is your reader’s attitude toward the subject? (p. 89)

What are your reader’s expectations about the document? (p. 90)

How will your reader read your document? (p. 90) What is your reader’s reading skill? (p. 91)

What is the physical environment in which your reader will read your document? (p. 91)

In learning about your readers, did you

determine what you already know about them? (p. 92)

interview people? (p. 92)

read about your audience online? (p. 92)

search social media for documents your audience has written? (p. 92)

analyze social-media data, if available? (p. 94) In planning to write for an audience from another culture,

did you consider the following cultural variables: political? (p. 96)

economic? (p. 96)

social? (p. 96) religious? (p. 96) educational? (p. 96) technological? (p. 96) linguistic? (p. 96)

In planning to write for an audience from another culture, did you consider other cultural variables:

focus on individuals or groups? (p. 97) distance between business life and private life? (p. 97) distance between ranks? (p. 98) need for details to be spelled out? (p. 98) attitudes toward uncertainty? (p. 98)

In writing for a multicultural audience, did you

limit your vocabulary? (p. 101)

keep sentences short? (p. 101)

define abbreviations and acronyms in a glossary? (p. 101)

avoid jargon unless you knew that your readers were familiar with it? (p. 101)

avoid idioms and slang? (p. 101)

use the active voice whenever possible? (p. 101)

use graphics carefully? (p. 101)

have the document reviewed by someone from the reader’s culture? (p. 101)

In writing for multiple audiences, did you consider creating a modular document? (p.107)

Did you state your purpose in writing and express it in the form of a verb or verbs? (p. 108)

Did you get management’s approval of your analysis of audience and purpose? (p. 109)

Chapter 16

Markel, M. (2015). Technical communication (11th ed.).  Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin’s.

CHAPTER 16

A PROPOSAL IS an offer to carry out research or to provide a product or service. For instance, a physical therapist might write a proposal to her supervisor for funding to attend a convention to learn about current rehabilitation practices. A defense contractor might submit a proposal to design and build a fleet of drones for the Air Force. A homeless shelter might submit a proposal to a philanthropic organization for funding to provide more services to the homeless community. Whether a project is small or big, within your own company or outside it, it is likely to call for a proposal.

Understanding the Process of Writing Proposals

Writing a proposal calls for the same process of planning, drafting, revising, editing, and proofreading that you use for other kinds of documents. The Focus on Process box on the next page presents an overview of this process.

the logistics of Proposals

Proposals can be classified as either internal or external; external proposals are either solicited or unsolicited. Figure 16.1 shows the relationships among these four terms.

InTernaL anD exTernaL ProPoSaLS

Internal proposals are submitted to the writer’s own organization; external proposals are submitted to another organization.

FOcuS On PROceSS

When writing a proposal, pay special attention to these steps in the writing process.

PlannInG

draftInG

revIsInG edItInG ProofreadInG

consider your readers’ knowledge about and attitudes toward what you are proposing. use the techniques discussed in chapters 5 and 6 to learn as much as you can about your readers’ needs and about the subject. Also consider whether you have the personnel, facilities, and equipment to do what you propose to do.

collaboration is critical in large proposals because no one person has the time and expertise to do all the work. see chapter 4 for more about collaboration. in writing the proposal, follow the instructions in any request for proposal (RFP) or information for bid (iFB) from the prospective customer. if there are no instructions, follow the structure for proposals outlined in this chapter.

external proposals usually have a firm deadline. Build in time to revise, edit, and proofread the proposal thoroughly and still get it to readers on time. see the Writer’s checklist on page 443.

Internal Proposals An internal proposal is an argument, submitted within an organization, for carrying out an activity that will benefit the organization. An internal proposal might recommend that the organization conduct research, purchase a product, or change some aspect of its policies or procedures.

For example, while working on a project in the laboratory, you realize that if you had a fiber-curl measurement system, you could do your job better and faster. The increased productivity would save your company the cost of the system in a few months. Your supervisor asks you to write a memo describ- ing what you want, why you want it, what you’re going to do with it, and what it costs; if your request seems reasonable and the money is available, you’ll likely get the new system.

Often, the scope of a proposal determines its format. A request for a small amount of money might be conveyed orally or by email or a brief memo. A request for a large amount, however, is likely to be presented in a formal report.

external Proposals No organization produces all the products or pro- vides all the services it needs. Websites need to be designed, written, and maintained; inventory databases need to be created; facilities need to be constructed. Sometimes projects require unusual expertise, such as sophisti- cated market analyses. Because many companies supply these products and services, most organizations require that a prospective supplier compete for the business by submitting a proposal, a document arguing that it deserves the business.

SoLICITeD anD UnSoLICITeD ProPoSaLS

External proposals are either solicited or unsolicited. A solicited proposal is submitted in response to a request from the prospective customer. An unso- licited proposal is submitted by a supplier who believes that the prospective customer has a need for goods or services.

Solicited Proposals When an organization wants to purchase a product or service, it publishes one of two basic kinds of statements:

• An information for bid (IFB) is used for standard products. When a state agency needs desktop computers, for instance, it informs computer manufacturers of the configuration it needs. All other things being equal, the supplier that offers the lowest bid for a product with that configuration wins the contract. When an agency solicits bids for a specific brand and model, the solicitation is sometimes called a request for quotation (RFQ).

• A request for proposal (RFP) is used for more-customized products or services. For example, if the Air Force needs an “identification, friend or foe” system, the RFP it publishes might be a long and detailed set of technical specifications. The supplier that can design, produce, and deliver the device most closely resembling the specifications—at a reasonable price—will probably win the contract.

Most organizations issue IFBs and RFPs in print and online. Government solicitations are published on the FedBizOpps website. Figure 16.2 shows a portion of an RFQ.

Unsolicited Proposals An unsolicited proposal is like a solicited proposal except that it does not refer to an RFP. In most cases, even though the poten- tial customer did not formally request the proposal, the supplier was invited to submit the proposal after people from the two organizations met and discussed the project. Because proposals are expensive to write, suppliers are reluctant to submit them without assurances that they will be considered carefully. Thus, the word unsolicited is only partially accurate.

the “deliverables” of Proposals

A deliverable is what a supplier will deliver at the end of a project. Deliverables can be classified into two major categories: research or goods and services.

reSearCh ProPoSaLS

In a research proposal, you are promising to perform research and then provide a report about it. For example, a biologist for a state bureau of land management writes a proposal to the National Science Foundation request- ing resources to build a window-lined tunnel in the forest to study tree and plant roots and the growth of fungi. The biologist also wishes to investigate the relationship between plant growth and the activity of insects and worms. The deliverable will be a report submitted to the National Science Foundation and, perhaps, an article published in a professional journal.

Research proposals often lead to two other applications: progress reports and recommendation reports.

After a proposal has been approved and the researchers have begun work, they often submit one or more progress reports, which tell the sponsor of the project how the work is proceeding. Is it following the plan of work outlined in the proposal? Is it going according to schedule? Is it staying within budget?

At the end of the project, researchers prepare a recommendation report, often called a final report, a project report, a completion report, or simply a report. A recommendation report tells the whole story of a research project, begin- ning with the problem or opportunity that motivated it and continuing with the methods used in carrying it out, the results, and the researchers’ conclu- sions and recommendations.

People carry out research projects to satisfy their curiosity and to advance professionally. Organizations often require that their professional employees carry out research and publish in appropriate journals or books. Government researchers and university professors, for instance, are expected to remain active in their fields. Writing proposals is one way to get the resources—time and money for travel, equipment, and assistants—to carry out research.

GooDS anD SerVICeS ProPoSaLS

A goods and services proposal is an offer to supply a tangible product (a fleet of automobiles), a service (building maintenance), or some combination of the two (the construction of a building).

A vast network of goods and services contracts spans the working world. The U.S. government, the world’s biggest customer, spent $327 billion in 2009 buying military equipment from organizations that submitted proposals (U.S. Department of Defense, 2013). But goods and services contracts are by no means limited to government contractors. An auto manufacturer might buy its engines from another manufacturer; a company that makes spark plugs might buy its steel and other raw materials from another company.

Another kind of goods and services proposal requests funding to support a local organization. For example, a women’s shelter might receive some of its funding from a city or county but might rely on grants from private philan- thropies. Typically, an organization such as a shelter would apply for a grant to fund increased demand for its services due to a natural disaster or an eco- nomic slowdown in the community. Or it might apply for a grant to fund a pilot program to offer job training at the shelter. Most large corporations have philanthropic programs offering grants to help local colleges and universi- ties, arts organizations, and social-service agencies.

Persuasion and Proposals

A proposal is an argument. You must convince readers that the future ben- efits will outweigh the immediate and projected costs. Basically, you must persuade your readers of three things:

that you understand their needs

that you have already determined what you plan to do and that you are able to do it

that you are a professional and are committed to fulfilling your promises

SCORE A+ WITH HELP FROM OUR PROFESSIONAL WRITERS – Proposal for Final Project – Recommendation Report

UnDerSTanDInG reaDerS’ neeDS

The most crucial element of the proposal is the definition of the problem or opportunity to which the proposed project responds. Although this point seems obvious, people who evaluate proposals agree that the most common weakness they see is an inadequate or inaccurate understanding of the prob- lem or opportunity.

readers’needsinanInternalProposal Writinganinternalproposalis both simpler and more complicated than writing an external one. It is simpler because you have greater access to internal readers than you do to external readers and you can get information more easily. However, it is more compli- cated because you might find it hard to understand the situation in your orga- nization. Some colleagues will not tell you that your proposal is a long shot or that your ideas might threaten someone in the organization. Before you write an internal proposal, discuss your ideas with as many potential readers as you can to learn what those in the organization really think of them.

readers’ needs in an external Proposal When you receive an RFP, study it thoroughly. If you don’t understand something in it, contact the orga- nization. They will be happy to clarify it: a proposal based on misunderstood needs wastes everyone’s time.

When you write an unsolicited proposal, analyze your audience carefully. How can you define the problem or opportunity so that readers will under- stand it? Keep in mind readers’ needs and, if possible, their backgrounds. Concentrate on how the problem has decreased productivity or quality

or how your ideas would create new opportunities. When you submit an unsolicited proposal, your task in many cases is to convince readers that a need exists. Even if you have reached an understanding with some of your potential customer’s representatives, your proposal will still have to persuade other officials in the company. Most readers will reject a proposal as soon as they realize that it doesn’t address their needs.

When you are preparing a proposal to be submitted to an organization in another culture, keep in mind the following six suggestions (Newman, 2011):

• Understand that what makes an argument persuasive can differ from one culture to another. Paying attention to the welfare of the company or the community might be more persuasive than offering a low bottom-line price. Representatives of an American company were surprised to learn that the Venezuelan readers of their proposal had selected a French company whose staff “had been making personal visits for years, bringing their families, and engaging in social activities long before there was any question of a contract” (Thrush, 2000).

• budget enough time for translating. If your proposal has to be translated into another language, build in plenty of time. Translating long technical documents is a lengthy process because, even though some of the work can be done by computer software, the machine translation needs to be reviewed by native speakers of the target language.

• Use simple graphics, with captions. To reduce the chances of misunderstand- ing, use a lot of simple graphics, such as pie charts and bar graphs. Include captions so that readers can understand the graphics easily, without having to look through the text to see what each graphic means.

• Write short sentences, using common vocabulary. Short sentences are easier to understand than long sentences. Choose words that have few meanings. For example, use the word right as the opposite of left; use correct as the opposite of incorrect.

• Use local conventions regarding punctuation, spelling, and mechanics. Be aware that these conventions differ from place to place, even in the English-speaking world.

• ask if the prospective customer will do a read-through. A read-through is the process of reading a draft of a proposal to look for any misunderstandings due to language or cultural differences. Why do prospective customers do this? Because it’s in everyone’s interest for the proposal to respond clearly to the customer’s needs.

DeSCrIBInG WhaT YoU PLan To Do

Once you have shown that you understand what needs to be done and why, describe what you plan to do. Convince your readers that you can respond effectively to the situation you have just described. Discuss procedures and equipment you would use. If appropriate, justify your choices. For example, if you say you want to do ultrasonic testing on a structure, explain why, unless the reason is obvious.

Present a complete picture of what you would do from the first day of the project to the last. You need more than enthusiasm and good faith; you need a detailed plan showing that you have already started to do the work. Although no proposal can anticipate every question about what you plan to do, the more planning you have done before you submit the proposal, the greater the chances you will be able to do the work successfully if it is approved.

DemonSTraTInG YoUr ProFeSSIonaLISm

Once you have shown that you understand readers’ needs and can offer a well- conceived plan, demonstrate that you are the kind of person (or that yours is the kind of organization) that is committed to delivering what you promise. Con- vince readers that you have the pride, ingenuity, and perseverance to solve the problems that are likely to occur. In short, show that you are a professional.

eTHIcS nOTe

WrITInG honeST ProPoSaLS

When an organization approves a proposal, it needs to trust that the people who will carry out the project will do it professionally. over the centuries, however, dishonest proposal writers have perfected a number of ways to trick prospective customers into thinking the project will go smoothly:

• saying that certain qualified people will participate in the project, even though they will not

• saying that the project will be finished by a certain date, even though it will not

• saying that the deliverable will have certain characteristics, even though it will not

• saying that the project will be completed under budget, even though it will not

copying from another company’s proposal is another common dishonest tactic. Proposals are protected by copyright law. An employee may not copy from a proposal he or she wrote while working for a different company.

there are three reasons to be honest in writing a proposal:

• to avoid serious legal trouble stemming from breach-of-contract suits

• to avoid acquiring a bad reputation, thus ruining your business

• to do the right thing

Writing a Proposal

Although writing a proposal requires the same writing process that you use for most other kinds of technical documents, a proposal can be so large that two aspects of the writing process—resource planning and collaboration—are even more important than they are for smaller documents.

Like planning a writing project, discussed in Chapter 5, planning a pro- posal requires a lot of work. You need to see whether your organization can devote the needed resources to writing the proposal and then to carrying out the project if the proposal is approved. Sometimes an organization writes a proposal, wins the contract, and then loses money because it lacks the resources to do the project and must subcontract major portions of it. The resources you need fall into three basic categories:

• Personnel. Will you have the technical personnel, managers, and support people you will need?

• facilities. Will you have the facilities, or can you lease them? Can you profitably subcontract tasks to companies that have the necessary facilities?

• equipment. Do you have the right equipment? If not, can you buy it or lease it or subcontract the work? Some contracts provide for the purchase of equipment, but others don’t.

Don’t write the proposal unless you are confident that you can carry out the project if you get the go-ahead.

Collaboration is critical in preparing large proposals because no one per- son has the time and expertise to do all the work. Writing major proposals requires the expertise of technical personnel, writers, editors, graphic artists, managers, lawyers, and document-production specialists. Often, proposal writers use shared document workspaces and wikis. Usually, a project man- ager coordinates the process.

Proposal writers almost always reuse existing information, including boil- erplate such as descriptions of other projects the company has done, histories and descriptions of the company, and résumés of the primary personnel who will work on the project. This reuse of information is legal and ethical as long as the information is the intellectual property of the company.

SCORE A+ WITH HELP FROM OUR PROFESSIONAL WRITERS – Proposal for Final Project – Recommendation Report

The structure of the Proposal

Proposal structures vary greatly from one organization to another. A long, complex proposal might have 10 or more sections, including introduction, problem, objectives, solution, methods and resources, and management. If the authorizing agency provides an IFB, an RFP, an RFQ, or a set of guidelines, follow it closely. If you have no guidelines, or if you are writing an unsolicited proposal, use the structure shown here as a starting point. Then modify it according to your subject, your purpose, and the needs of your audience. An example of a proposal is presented on pages 436–42.

SUmmarY

For a proposal of more than a few pages, provide a summary. Many organiza- tions impose a length limit—such as 250 words—and ask the writer to pre- sent the summary, single-spaced, on the title page. The summary is crucial, because it might be the only item that readers study in their initial review of the proposal.

The summary covers the major elements of the proposal but devotes only a few sentences to each. Define the problem in a sentence or two. Next, describe the proposed program and provide a brief statement of your qualifi- cations and experience. Some organizations wish to see the completion date and the final budget figure in the summary; others prefer that this informa- tion be presented separately on the title page along with other identifying information about the supplier and the proposed project.

InTroDUCTIon

The purpose of the introduction is to help readers understand the context, scope, and organization of the proposal.

Introducing a Proposal

the introduction to a proposal should answer the following seven questions:

What is the problem or opportunity? describe the problem or opportunity in specific monetary terms, because the proposal itself will include a budget, and you want to convince your readers that spending money on what you propose is smart. don’t say that a design problem is slowing down production; say that it is costing $4,500 a day in lost productivity.

What is the purpose of the proposal? the purpose of the proposal is to describe a solution to a problem or an approach to an opportunity and propose activities that will culminate in a deliverable. Be specific in explaining what you want to do.

What is the background of the problem or opportunity? Although you probably will not be telling your readers anything they don’t already know, show them that you understand the problem or opportunity: the circumstances that led to its discovery, the relationships or events that will affect the problem and its solution, and so on.

What are your sources of information? Review the relevant literature, ranging from internal reports and memos to published articles or even books, so that readers will understand the context of your work.

What is the scope of the proposal? if appropriate, indicate not only what you are proposing to do but also what you are not proposing to do.

What is the organization of the proposal? explain the organizational pattern you will use.

What are the key terms that you will use in the proposal? if you will use any specialized or unusual terms, define them in the introduction.

SCORE A+ WITH HELP FROM OUR PROFESSIONAL WRITERS – Proposal for Final Project – Recommendation Report

ProPoSeD ProGram

In the section on the proposed program, sometimes called the plan of work, explain what you want to do. Be specific. You won’t persuade anyone by say- ing that you plan to “gather the data and analyze it.” How will you gather and analyze the data? Justify your claims. Every word you say—or don’t say—will give your readers evidence on which to base their decision.

If your project concerns a subject written about in the professional litera- ture, show your familiarity with the scholarship by referring to the pertinent studies. However, don’t just string together a bunch of citations. For exam- ple, don’t write, “Carruthers (2012), Harding (2013), and Vega (2013) have all researched the relationship between global warming and groundwater con- tamination.” Rather, use the recent literature to sketch the necessary back- ground and provide the justification for your proposed program. For instance: carruthers (2012), harding (2013), and vega (2013) have demonstrated the relationship between global warming and groundwater contamination. none of these studies, however, included an analysis of the long-term contamination of the aquifer. the current study will consist of . . . .

You might include only a few references to recent research. However, if your topic is complex, you might devote several paragraphs or even several pages to recent scholarship.

Whether your project calls for primary research, secondary research, or both, the proposal will be unpersuasive if you haven’t already done a sub- stantial amount of research. For instance, say you are writing a proposal to do research on purchasing new industrial-grade lawn mowers for your company. Simply stating that you will visit Wal-Mart, Lowe’s, and Home Depot to see what kinds of lawn mowers they carry would be unpersuasive for two reasons:

• You need to justify why you are going to visit those three retailers rather than others. Anticipate your readers’ questions: Why did you choose these three retailers? Why didn’t you choose specialized dealers?

• You should already have determined what stores carry what kinds of lawn mowers and completed any other preliminary research. If you haven’t done the homework, readers have no assurance that you will in fact do it or that it will pay off. If your supervisor authorizes the project and then you learn that none of the lawn mowers in these stores meets your organization’s needs, you will have to go back and submit a different proposal—an embarrassing move.

Unless you can show in your proposed program that you have done the research—and that the research indicates that the project is likely to succeed—the reader has no reason to authorize the project.

QUaLIFICaTIonS anD exPerIenCe

After you have described how you would carry out the project, show that you can do it. The more elaborate the proposal, the more substantial the discussionof your qualifications and experience has to be. For a small project, include a few paragraphs describing your technical credentials and those of your co- workers. For larger projects, include the résumés of the project leader, often called the principal investigator, and the other primary participants.

External proposals should also discuss the qualifications of the supplier’s organization, describing similar projects the supplier has completed success- fully. For example, a company bidding on a contract to build a large suspen- sion bridge should describe other suspension bridges it has built. It should also focus on the equipment and facilities the company already has and on the management structure that will ensure the project will go smoothly.

BUDGeT

Good ideas aren’t good unless they’re affordable. The budget section of a pro- posal specifies how much the proposed program will cost.

Budgets vary greatly in scope and format. For simple internal proposals, add the budget request to the statement of the proposed program: “This study will take me two days, at a cost of about $400” or “The variable-speed recorder currently costs $225, with a 10 percent discount on orders of five or more.” For more-complicated internal proposals and for all external propos- als, include a more-explicit and complete budget.

Many budgets are divided into two parts: direct costs and indirect costs. Direct costs include such expenses as salaries and fringe benefits of program personnel, travel costs, and costs of necessary equipment, materials, and supplies. Indirect costs cover expenses that are sometimes called overhead: general secretarial and clerical expenses not devoted exclusively to any one project, as well as operating expenses such as costs of utilities and mainte- nance. Indirect costs are usually expressed as a percentage—ranging from less than 20 percent to more than 100 percent—of the direct expenses.

aPPenDIxeS

Many types of appendixes might accompany a proposal. Most organizations have boilerplate descriptions of the organization and of the projects it has com- pleted. Another item commonly included in an appendix is a supporting letter:

a testimonial to the supplier’s skill and integrity, written by a reputable and well-known person in the field. Two other kinds of appendixes deserve special mention: the task schedule and the description of evaluation techniques.

Task Schedule A task schedule is almost always presented in one of three graphical formats: as a table, a bar chart, or a network diagram.

Tables The simplest but least informative way to present a schedule is in a table, as shown in Figure 16.3. As with all graphics, provide a textual reference that introduces and, if necessary, explains the table.

TaSk SCheDULe

design the security system 4 oct. 14 19 oct. 14

Research available systems 4 oct. 14 3 Jan. 15

etc.

FIguRe 16.3 Task Schedule Presented as a Table

Although displaying information in a table is better than writing it out in sentences, readers still cannot “see” the information. They have to read the table to figure out how long each activity will last, and they cannot tell whether any of the activities are interdependent. They have no way of determining what would happen to the overall project schedule if one of the activities faced delays.

Bar Charts Bar charts, also called Gantt charts after the early twentieth- century civil engineer who first used them, are more informative than tables. The basic bar chart shown in Figure 16.4 allows readers to see how long each task will take and whether different tasks will occur simultaneously. Like tables, however, bar charts do not indicate the interdependence of tasks.

Network Diagrams Network diagrams show interdependence among various activities, clearly indicating which must be completed before others can begin. However, even a relatively simple network diagram, such as the one shown in Figure 16.5, can be difficult to read. You would probably not use this type of diagram in a document intended for general readers.

Description of evaluation Techniques Although evaluation can mean different things to different people, an evaluation technique typically refers to any procedure used to determine whether the proposed program is both effective and efficient. Evaluation techniques can range from writing simple progress reports to conducting sophisticated statistical analyses. Some pro- posals call for evaluation by an outside agent, such as a consultant, a testing laboratory, or a university. Other proposals describe evaluation techniques that the supplier will perform, such as cost-benefit analyses.

The issue of evaluation is complicated by the fact that some people think in terms of quantitative evaluations—tests of measurable quantities, such as pro- duction increases—whereas others think in terms of qualitative evaluations— tests of whether a proposed program is improving, say, the workmanship on a product. And some people include both qualitative and quantitative testing when they refer to evaluation. An additional complication is that projects can be tested while they are being carried out (formative evaluations) as well as after they have been completed (summative evaluations). When an RFP calls for “evaluation,” experienced proposal writers contact the prospective customer’s representatives to determine precisely what the word means.

SCORE A+ WITH HELP FROM OUR PROFESSIONAL WRITERS – Proposal for Final Project – Recommendation Report

WRITeR’S cHecKLIST

The following checklist covers the basic elements of a proposal. Guidelines established by the recipient of the proposal should take precedence over these general suggestions.

Does the summary provide an overview of the problem or the opportunity? (p. 429) the proposed program? (p. 429) your qualifications and experience? (p. 429)

Does the introduction indicate

the problem or opportunity? (p. 429)

the purpose of the proposal? (p. 429)

the background of the problem or opportunity?

(p. 429) your sources of information? (p. 429) the scope of the proposal? (p. 429) the organization of the proposal? (p. 429) the key terms that you will use in the proposal? (p. 429)

exeRcISeS

Does the description of the proposed program provide a clear, specific plan of action and justify the tasks you propose performing? (p. 430)

Does the description of qualifications and experience clearly outline

your relevant skills and past work? (p. 432) the skills and background of the other participants?

(p. 432)

your department’s (or organization’s) relevant equipment, facilities, and experience? (p. 432)

Is the budget complete? (p. 432) correct? (p. 432) accompanied by an in-text reference? (p. 432)

Do the appendixes include the relevant supporting materials, such as a task schedule, a description of evaluation technique

ADDITIONAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE CLASS

SCORE A+ WITH HELP FROM OUR PROFESSIONAL WRITERS – Proposal for Final Project – Recommendation Report

We will process your orders through multiple stages and checks to ensure that what we are delivering to you, in the end, is something that is precise as you envisioned it. All of our essay writing service products are 100% original, ensuring that there is no plagiarism in them. The sources are well-researched and cited so it is interesting. Our goal is to help as many students as possible with their assignments, i.e. our prices are affordable and services premium. Proposal for Final Project – Recommendation Report

• Discussion Questions (DQ)

Initial responses to the DQ should address all components of the questions asked, including a minimum of one scholarly source, and be at least 250 words. Successful responses are substantive (i.e., add something new to the discussion, engage others in the discussion, well-developed idea) and include at least one scholarly source. One or two-sentence responses, simple statements of agreement or “good post,” and responses that are off-topic will not count as substantive. Substantive responses should be at least 150 words. I encourage you to incorporate the readings from the week (as applicable) into your responses. Proposal for Final Project – Recommendation Report

• Weekly Participation

Your initial responses to the mandatory DQ do not count toward participation and are graded separately. In addition to the DQ responses, you must post at least one reply to peers (or me) on three separate days, for a total of three replies. Participation posts do not require a scholarly source/citation (unless you cite someone else’s work). Part of your weekly participation includes viewing the weekly announcement and attesting to watching it in the comments. These announcements are made to ensure you understand everything that is due during the week.

• APA Format and Writing Quality

Familiarize yourself with the APA format and practice using it correctly. It is used for most writing assignments for your degree. Visit the Writing Center in the Student Success Center, under the Resources tab in Loud-cloud for APA paper templates, citation examples, tips, etc. Points will be deducted for poor use of APA format or absence of APA format (if required). Cite all sources of information! When in doubt, cite the source. Paraphrasing also requires a citation. I highly recommend using the APA Publication Manual, 6th edition.

• Use of Direct Quotes

I discourage over-utilization of direct quotes in DQs and assignments at the Master’s level and deduct points accordingly. As Masters’ level students, it is important that you be able to critically analyze and interpret information from journal articles and other resources. Simply restating someone else’s words does not demonstrate an understanding of the content or critical analysis of the content. It is best to paraphrase content and cite your source. Proposal for Final Project – Recommendation Report

• LopesWrite Policy

For assignments that need to be submitted to Lopes Write, please be sure you have received your report and Similarity Index (SI) percentage BEFORE you do a “final submit” to me. Once you have received your report, please review it. This report will show you grammatical, punctuation, and spelling errors that can easily be fixed. Take the extra few minutes to review instead of getting counted off for these mistakes. Review your similarities. Did you forget to cite something? Did you not paraphrase well enough? Is your paper made up of someone else’s thoughts more than your own? Visit the Writing Center in the Student Success Center, under the Resources tab in Loud-cloud for tips on improving your paper and SI score.

• Late Policy

The university’s policy on late assignments is a 10% penalty PER DAY LATE. This also applies to late DQ replies. Please communicate with me if you anticipate having to submit an assignment late. I am happy to be flexible, with advance notice. We may be able to work out an extension based on extenuating circumstances. If you do not communicate with me before submitting an assignment late, the GCU late policy will be in effect. I do not accept assignments that are two or more weeks late unless we have worked out an extension. As per policy, no assignments are accepted after the last day of class. Any assignment submitted after midnight on the last day of class will not be accepted for grading.

• Communication

Communication is so very important. There are multiple ways to communicate with me: Questions to Instructor Forum: This is a great place to ask course content or assignment questions. If you have a question, there is a good chance one of your peers does as well. This is a public forum for the class. Individual Forum: This is a private forum to ask me questions or send me messages. This will be checked at least once every 24 hours. Proposal for Final Project – Recommendation Report

• Guarantee

  

• Zero Plagiarism
• On-time delivery
• A-Grade Papers
• Free Revision
• 24/7 Support
• 100% Confidentiality
• Professional Writers

• Services Offered

• Custom paper writing
• Question and answers
• Essay paper writing
• Editing and proofreading
• Plagiarism removal services
• Multiple answer questions

We will process your orders through multiple stages and checks to ensure that what we are delivering to you, in the end, is something that is precise as you envisioned it. All of our essay writing service products are 100% original, ensuring that there is no plagiarism in them. The sources are well-researched and cited so it is interesting. Our goal is to help as many students as possible with their assignments, i.e. our prices are affordable and services premium. Proposal for Final Project – Recommendation Report

Looking for a Similar Assignment? Order a custom-written, plagiarism-free paper